Shigunov Neto, Alexandre & Maciel, Lizete Shizue B. (Orgs.) (2002). Reflexões Sobre A Formação de Professores

	Shigunov Neto, Alexandre & Maciel, Lizete Shizue B. (Orgs.) (2002). Reflexões Sobre A Formação de Professores. Campinas, São Paulo: Papirus Editora. 192 pages ISBN 85-308-0670-0 Reviewed by Ana Cruz St. Louis Community College-Meramec, USA August 19, 2003 Reflexões Sobre A Formação de Professores (translated as Reflections on the Preparation of Teachers), edited by Alexandre Shigunov Neto and Lizete Shizue B. Maciel constitutes an important contribution to the field of education. This slim volume, published as a paperback, provides an overview of issues pertinent to teacher preparation as depicted by Brazilian as well as Spanish and Portuguese educators. It is a fine volume on comparative educational systems linked by a major and important theme: the preparation of professional educators. This much needed work will prompt Brazilian educators to reflect upon their practice of preparing teachers. An English translation from the original Portuguese is highly recommended because it would enable a larger audience of educators to be exposed to the ideas addressed in this book. It is easy to envision this book as the basis for classes and seminars dealing with teacher preparation and comparative educational systems. The book consists of eight chapters (please note that the book reviewer did the English translation of chapter titles) that are preceded by a preface by Ilma Passos Alencastro Veiga and a brief introduction by the editors. The volume is a compilation of theoretical and practical contributions on teacher preparation and is addressed to both education students and professionals. In the preface to the book, Ilma Passos Alencastro Veiga identifies four primary elements that constitute the basic framework of the book. The contextual element addresses the interrelationship between governmental education policies, market demands, the profession, and the political nature of school assessment. The institutional element emphasizes critical reflection concerning the role and value of academic teaching and of inquiry. The formative element, in turn, deals with teachers’ knowledge to address issues of initial teacher preparation and continuous education. At last, the inquiry element stresses the importance of active research in teacher preparation. To justify thinking about teacher preparation within the framework of these four elements, Veiga provides three reasons: teacher preparation needs to meet the interests and educational requirements of a changing population; new forms of organizing pedagogical work require new ways of instruction in teacher preparation; and the value of teaching and research needs to be emphasized. Veiga then concludes with a brief reflective analysis of the articles in the book. Chapter 1 – State, Market and Profession: Or How to Put Together The Worst or the Best of Each One, by Mariano Fernandez Enguita. Teachers commonly complain about market forces and excessive bureaucracy that are obstacles to the teaching profession. They perceive themselves, however, as the true supporters of the teaching profession. Mariano F. Enguita contends that these ideological beliefs held by teachers about market, State, bureaucracy, and profession have little to do with reality. Enguita develops his thesis starting with the structure of the economic system and then addresses issues of power under the headings of property, authority and qualification, and their meaning for the teaching profession. The author illustrates his thoughts concerning the power relationships in the decision process by using a recent debate in Spain regarding the issue of the length of school day. The participants in this debate were the teachers, the students and their parents, and the school administration; the decision process involved aspects of State, market and profession. Enguita argues that the final decision on the issue of length of school day combined the worst aspects of State, market and profession. These aspects include: collective decision by a majority with minority opinion remaining not represented; minority needs to pay for alternative schooling or accept collective decision; loss of impartiality, loss of independence of professional criteria, isolation of teacher dissidents. Combining the best aspects of State, market and profession would have been achievable and the author provides an exposition of this alternative (e.g., replacing the collective with the individual decision; expert advise to the parents; free and equal access to instruction; free access to large offer of extra-curricular activities; independence of decision criteria). The article presented by Mariano F. Enguita is very interesting, but the author limits himself to references not more recent than 1988 to support his arguments. Surely, more current sources of information (e.g., Apple, 1996; Halsey et al., 1997) could have added to his arguments. In general the article provides an important contribution to the teaching profession through its critical analysis of State, market and the profession, and their influence on teachers. Teaching is not limited to the classroom setting and teachers need to be aware of outside influences (political and economic). Chapter 2 – SAEB, ENEM, “Provão”: How About School Assessment? by Benigna Maria de Freitas Villas Boas. SAEB, ENEM, and Provão refer to countrywide external assessment tests used in Brazil, starting in 1988 with SAEB. SAEB is administered at the elementary- and middle-school level, ENEM at the high-school level, and the Provão intends to probe the effectiveness of university undergraduate programs. Villas Boas does a good job in succinctly introducing these various external assessments. The author then follows up with a detailed comparison to external assessments in England and Wales. This comparison is the basis for putting forward a cautionary note about the application of external assessments and for an admonition to Brazilians to learn from the extensive British experiences, especially from the negative outcomes of external assessments. External assessments of the summative type became part of the global political and economic agenda. At present, the issue of external assessments is constantly debated in Brazilian education, even though these assessments have not reached the standardized levels as in other countries. There is the fear that the summative assessments will drive formative assessments into disappearance and with it a level of autonomy for schools and teachers. Villas Boas stresses the need to educate pre-service teachers and teachers about the different types of assessment. The nature and possible negative and positive effects of summative tests need to be discussed in teacher preparation programs, as well as the true nature and significance of formative assessments. The article by Villas Boas is very informative. It contains updated information regarding national external assessments used in Brazil. The information is presented in an well-organized manner so even the reader unfamiliar with the Brazilian educational system will be able to follow the arguments easily. The comparison with the assessment successes and failures in Britain is a welcome contribution. It is important for teachers to contextualize these issues on a global scale. One criticism concerns the use of internet sources and their citation within the text. These sources are not referenced in the bibliography and this makes it more difficult for the reader to follow up in accessing these websites for either further information or evaluation. Chapter 3 – The Teacher and His/Her Right to Study, by Pedro Demo. Pedro Demo discusses the importance of a solid foundation in teacher preparation programs and of continuous teacher education. He argues against a shortened instruction period (i.e., two years) for pre-service teachers, which would amount to a devaluation of the teaching profession. Instead, he supports a longer instruction period (i.e., five years) for pre-service teachers committed to the teaching profession and, especially, a right for all teachers for continuous study. This would enable them to become expert learners who can teach their students how to become learners themselves. In addition, through continuous education, the actual teachers would be exposed to new ideas on how to face the challenges of new technologies and of a growing interdisciplinary world. He goes so far as to suggest a teacher diploma that needs to be renewed periodically to ensure that teachers stay current through continuous study. This emphasis on a solid foundation and on continuing education underscores the central role and value of the teaching profession in society: teachers do not just lecture, but they nurture and educate a citizenry that is critical for the political and social life of a society. Many proposal have been put forward to change and reform teacher education programs. However, if these changes continue to be “imposed” by the government only, with little or no input from the teachers, these changes could turn out to be fruitless in the sense that student learning would not be improved. Demo argues that, as with the act of learning, changes in teacher education programs should progress from the inside and not be imposed from the outside! Overall this is a well-written article in which the interconnection of political consciousness, society and teacher preparation is well argued. I sympathize with Pedro Demo’s position. A teacher needs to be educated comprehensively and the teaching profession should definitely be valued higher in today’s society. While continuous education for teachers is highly desirable, including the teachers’ right for it, I can see problems in its implementation in a country such as Brazil where the necessary resources, such as books, scientific journals, magazines and computers/internet access, might not be readily available for such a reform. Addressing the issue of access to resources would have been an important addition to the chapter. Chapter 4 – Preparation of Teachers and their Various Levels of Expertise, by Lucíola Licínio de Castro Paixão Santos. In this chapter Santos focuses on the importance of experienced-based knowledge for teachers. After a brief overview of the main themes through time (beginning with the 1960s) of teacher preparation in Brazil, she enters into a discussion of professional practice and the intrinsic value of knowledge gained through practical experience. She argues that experienced-based knowledge is vital for the teaching profession and practice. Following Tardif et al. (1991) this knowledge also acts as a filter through which a teacher’s decisions regarding curriculum, pedagogical and subject knowledge are influenced, and through which prior knowledge and knowledge to be acquired is evaluated. Santos believes that curriculum reform is central to improving the level of teacher preparation. Currently, there is much emphasis on distinguishing between theory and practice in teaching, and between teaching and research in teacher preparation programs. Research and practice are intrinsically related and this needs to be emphasized in teacher preparation. To solve complex problems encountered in the classroom, a combination of theoretical and practical knowledge often is essential. Pre-service teachers need to acquire a series of competencies that can only be gained through practical exercise. There is concern about the structure of the curriculum, because its organization based on disciplines, according to the author, gives it a fragmented character. Santos argues that the tendency to divide knowledge more and more into disciplines needs to be changed. This change can be accomplished through the creation of opportunities for pre-service teachers to obtain the practical experience of applying knowledge in a non-compartmentalized way where the many dimensions of the socio-cultural contexts of schools intersect with the personal complexity of each student. Obtaining experienced-based knowledge, either through individual experiences or collective experiences shared with colleagues, is even more important, because many situations encountered in the classroom are unique and cannot be prepared for in theory or solved using prescribed techniques. On the other hand, past experiences of teachers and pre-service teachers, their values and beliefs, and social environments can be the basis for identifying common trends on how problems were solved. These solutions can then be adapted to new contexts. A final cautionary note by the author concerns the ethical aspect of research in the area of teacher preparation. Researchers often highlight negative aspects of teaching without properly considering the frequently adverse conditions professionals encounter and the many difficulties they have to master in order to carry out their work. Santos prompts the reader to think about and analyze the preparation of teachers within a larger context, including the social, cultural and political environments of the school. What should be addressed in more detail is the interconnection between theory and practice. Is this interconnection between theory and practice an issue to be considered within the ethical aspect of research? In general the article is well presented and raises extremely important questions concerning the preparation of teachers and the knowledge they obtain through professional experience. Chapter 5 – Pedagogical Knowledge and the Preparation of Teachers, by Jacques Therrien. According to the author, pedagogical work involves the day-to-day presentation of various heterogeneous subjects that are learned through the reflective mode by the student. This pedagogical work of the teacher is dominated by constant decision-making on a multitude of complex issues that occur in a classroom. Pedagogical work is in essence the intersection of a very complex world (including the students and the teacher) and a world more or less structured (the school). Therrien follows Tardif et al. (1991) in that pedagogical knowledge encompasses subject/curricula knowledge, knowledge based on pedagogical training, professional experience knowledge, cultural knowledge, and knowledge based on social practice. These knowledges converge in everyday teaching practice when the teacher makes use of putting her/his distinctive personal imprint on them. Of special importance here is the knowledge of experience. Therrien emphasizes that a teacher has a tripartite connection to knowledge: as an expert of various knowledges, as a modifier of acquired knowledges, and as a curator of the ethical dimension of these knowledges. Knowledge of experience is acquired in practice by reflection about possible actions that will eventually result in decisions in the classroom. Therrien concludes by stating that teacher preparation must provide opportunity for critical reflection – teachers must be prepared to be permanent researchers of their own day-to-day practices. Therrien addresses an interesting but complex issue that is important for teachers to contemplate: the issue that teachers are contextualized within a socio-cultural environment, but also within a professional culture. Teachers must be aware of the different cultures that influence their daily work and also influence their actions and decisions. The concept of “culture in action,” presented by the author, represents this idea. Therefore, I agree with the author that critical reflection is of vital importance for the preparation of teachers. Chapter 6 – The University, the Value of Teaching, and the Preparation of its Instructors, by António F. Cachapuz. Cachapuz provides a reflection on the value of teaching in higher education, how pedagogically prepared university faculty is, and how this pedagogical preparation might be improved. The impetus for his thoughts is a university assessment conducted in Portugal in 2001 (by FUP) and the UNESCO World Conference in 1998 regarding the university mission. For the 21st century, universities will have to reevaluate their purpose. One prediction is that university teaching will gain more prominence relative to service and especially research, which is generally emphasized at universities. A true and equal symbiosis between teaching and research is a must for universities. FUP identified as the major problem for university teaching, especially at the undergraduate level, the lack of pedagogical techniques and a general mediocre pedagogical preparation of university faculty. Improving the teaching of university faculty must encompass innovative ways, but more research on university teaching is still needed. Cachapuz points out that a central role in this improvement lies with the university faculty reflecting critically about their teaching, a strategy already employed with respect to research. In addition, a university-wide learning-supportive environment that promotes discussion and easy exchange of innovations among faculty based on these reflections is essential. Cachapuz continues by suggesting a multitude of other ideas to promote improvement of teaching in higher education, based in part on an innovative program called PBL (Problem-Based Learning) developed in the field of medicine. These suggestions concentrate on aspects of breaking faculty academic isolation, reward for pedagogical innovations, and dissemination of teaching-related innovations. A dedicated university support structure and specific organizational structures are of cardinal importance for effective improvement of teaching. This can only be accomplished if universities see teaching excellence as a paramount feature for their future within the 21st century and are willing to invest in institutional reform. The article by Cachapuz is very interesting and is a timely contribution to teacher preparation. I agree that the role of teaching at the university level has received comparatively little attention and that much more research is needed. In addition, the topic of self-preparation among university professors is an important issue. Many university professors commonly lack formal pedagogical training and, although they have well adjusted with respect to content, the main problem remains that they have to be exposed to pedagogical training “as they go.” Overall, Cachapuz’ arguments and thoughts are well presented and supported. A positive point to mention is the bibliographic entries: they are current and diverse (i.e., scientific articles, reports, books) reflecting the timeliness of the article. Chapter 7 – Inquiry as a Strategy for Continuous Education of Teachers: Reflections on an Experience, by Maria Teresa Estrela. The transformations in schools caused by a changing society will require a new breed of educational professionals. Within this changing environment these educators are required to pursue continuous education. Inquiry, regarded as a strategy of instruction, together with critical reflection should be an integral part of the education of these new professionals. Estrela perceives continuous education as a complex process infused with political and philosophical issues. Effective teacher preparation should be centered on teacher self-awareness with inquiry as an important tool. Inquiry-based preparation is best suited to bridge theory and practice, and to prepare the teacher to scrutinize complex and changing circumstances related to professional situations and their institutional and social contexts. This type of inquiry method, however, requires the appropriate framework of time, place and means. The qualitative research project IRA (Investigation-Reflection-Action), led by the author and A. Estrela, is presented as an example of teacher preparation involving reflection, teacher self-awareness, and inquiry. This intriguing article by Maria T. Estrela, despite its widespread use of philosophical terminology, has solid arguments and is accessible for the reader. The comprehensive reference list is up-to-date and includes literature authored in several different languages. Teacher preparation based on inquiry is very important as pointed out also in other contributions to this book. The opportunity for continuous education is the appropriate way for teachers to keep up with a changing society and developing a critical mind through inquiry-based preparation is best suited to accommodate to these societal changes. It is hoped that teacher preparation programs and universities in general will support this type of inquiry-based instruction, and that they will provide the necessary nurturing environment. The IRA project is a timely example of the type of teacher preparation proposed in this article. I am looking forward to this study being available in book form (currently in press). Chapter 8 – Using Research in Teacher Preparation: A Study on the Importance of Reading in Elementary School, by Lizete Shizue B. Maciel, Eliana Maria C. Higino Silva, and Sirlei da Silva Bueno The authors are concerned with how the preparation in teacher programs enables teachers to face current classroom dilemmas. It describes a supervised practice project with students involved in investigating why elementary-school students were having troubles with reading. The findings of the investigation are interesting by themselves but, significant for teacher preparation, is the outcome of how important reading and staying current is for a classroom teacher. Another interesting conclusion with respect to teacher preparation is the authors’ emphasis on small research projects as a way for pre-service teachers to learn and combine theoretical and practical aspects of their training using a more ‘hands-on’ approach. The research project also allowed for ample time for reflection between the pre-service teachers and their supervisor concerning the matter being investigated. Overall, the chapter is well written and keeps the interest of the reader from beginning to end. The idea of small research projects during supervised practice as a way to collect data and to expose students to classroom reality is noteworthy. The authors’ findings for teacher preparation, derived from the research project, are important to be considered for teacher education programs. As for the study on reading specifically, I hope the authors will expand on the intriguing issue concerning ‘letter-style recognition’ with a broader follow-up study. For fellow instructors who would like to adopt a similar model of student investigation, it would have been helpful to learn more details about the methodology of the study (i.e., observation time, number of questionnaires, means of recording observations and interviews) and the time partitioning between such a research project and regular class-instruction time. Final Comments Alexandre Shigunov Neto and Lizete Shizue B. Maciel did an excellent job editing Reflections on the Preparation of Teachers. They ensured overall conformity of text layout and typographical errors are virtually absent. An index of key words and subjects, however, would have strengthened the book. It would enable the reader to cross check the chapters quickly for certain topics. The preface by Veiga provides a brief summary of the main themes discussed in the different chapters of the book. It would be desirable, nonetheless, to have this section expanded, maybe as a separate chapter by the book editors, which should draw together similarities and differences of the material covered in the chapters, emphasizing their significance for teacher preparation, and putting everything into perspective for the teaching profession. I suggest that two additional chapters be included in a future edition of this book: ethics in education and computer technology. Both topics are very significant for the preparation of teachers and two separate chapters should be devoted to these important issues and how they are dealt with in Brazil and other countries. Despite these minor criticisms Reflections on the Preparation of Teachers clearly provides an important service to the field of teacher preparation. The authors and editors of the book are to be congratulated! The book and its thought-provoking articles will instigate discussion and a re-thinking on the ways teachers are trained. It is hoped that this useful book will enjoy a wide readership. References Apple, M. W. (1996). Cultural Politics and Education. NY, NY: Teachers College Press. Halsey, A. H., Lauder, H., Brown, P., and Sturt Wells, A. (1997). Education: Culture, Economy, and Society. NY, NY: Oxford University Press. Tardif, M., Lessard, C., and LaHaye, L. (1991). Os Professores Face ao Saber: Esboço de Uma Problemática do Saber Docente. Teoria e Educação, 4, 215-233. About the Reviewer Ana Cruz, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Education at St. Louis Community College-Meramec where she teaches courses on Foundations of Education, Introduction to Classroom Teaching, and Computers in Education. Dr. Cruz received her Ph.D. in Education from the University of Tennessee-Knoxville and also holds degrees in Special Education and Music Education. Her research interests focus on multicultural/international education, special education (music for the deaf), and educational technology.