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Cole, Ardra L. & Knowles, J. Gary. (2001).
Lives in Context: The Art of Life History Research.
Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
Pp. vii + 232
$22.95 ISBN 0-7591-0143-4
Reviewed by Valerie Hershey
Texas A&M-Commerce;
April 18, 2002
Cole and Knowles, professors of education and editors of
Lives in Context offer a fresh approach to
qualitative research methodology. Although they propound
some of the core tenets of research methodology, they
also challenge some of the traditional
ways of thinking about qualitative research. The type of
qualitative research Cole and Knowles focus upon is
the life history model, the varieties of which include biographies, case
studies, narratives, and ethnographies.
The text is made up of two parts. The first portion
is devoted to pedagogically detailing the research
process, and is based on Cole and Knowles four guiding
principles, principles which challenge traditional
methodology. In the second section of the book,
the authors are joined by the voices of several other researchers,
who share their experiences of conducting life history research. The
perspectives from these brief thirteen chapters serve as testimonials to
the method and substantiate the truth of Cole and Knowles four
principles, not
only in research methodology but also in everyday life.
A life history goes beyond a scientifically based, objective
research inquiry into a subject's life. Throughout the book,
Cole and Knowles emphasize that objectivity is not only impossible,
but is also undesirable. The understanding that a researcher
attains concerning a subject is an
understanding based on the preconceptions and biases of the researcher.
The authors emphasize this belief
throughout their book, asserting "researchers are first and foremost
human" (p. 47) and "we research who
we are" (p. 89). Building upon this belief, that the
research process is shared between the researcher and
subject, and is a process of ongoing
responsiveness, they declare that creativity determines the direction the
study will take. As such, the life
history becomes arts-informed. The
authors state a life history becomes
a "creation of virtual reality; the
presence of ambiguity; the use of expressive language; the use of
contextualized and vernacular language; the
promotion of empathy; personal signature of the researcher/writer; and
the presence of aesthetic form" (p. 125).
Cole and Knowles promote life history research on the basis of four
guiding principles. Each of these principles, 1) relationality, 2) mutuality,
3) reflexivity, and 4) care, sensitivity, and respect are explored
in depth throughout the book. While the editors believe these
principles to be the foundation of a life history rich in context, they
also recognize the principles as being the basic tenets of living an ethically and
morally responsible life.
Relationality is concerned with
all the attributes that make up any
genuine relationship, attributes which include care, sensitivity, trust,
and respect. As in personal relationships, the relationship between
researcher and subject involves intimacy
and a mutual give and take in order
to be authentic.
In a chapter from the second section of the book, Renee Sarchuk Will
shares in narrative form her life as a nursing professional. She
reveals that she was drawn to nursing as a
child, upon the death of her grandfather. When her grandmother arrived
at the hospital, she found an empty bed; her husband had died and
the staff had moved his body to the morgue before contacting family members.
As a young girl, the author had an
epiphany from this experience, that
of being shocked by the callousness of the medical staff, and a
realization that part of being a healthcare provider means actually caring. While
in nursing school, she was trained to remain aloof from her patients, and
to resist the formation of relationships with patients and their families.
The author believes this constraint to be impossible to uphold, just
as she believes it is impossible as
a researcher to remain free from the
impact of relationships. She is now
a proponent for the life history research method in the field of health
care, and believes it helps health care providers develop deeper
understandings of the impact of illness and
therapy upon the lives of patients and their families.
Mutuality has to do with the interchangeability of roles between the
researcher and subject, and their s
hared affinity regarding the "purpose, process and results" (p. 28)
of the research project. Rather than researchers
maintaining a neutral distance from their participants, Cole and
Knowles propose that they work toget
her in developing the direction of inquiry.
In a later chapter, Knowles shares his experience of researching parents
who home-schooled their children. He relates the initial mistrust he
encountered from parents, parents
who had been previous research participants and who had been portrayed in
a negative light, parents who felt misunderstood by the media and society
at large. Knowles was able to break through this barrier only by sharing
his personal experiences as a home
educator for a brief period of time, a time when his work on a South
Pacific island offered no other alternative but to home-educate his
young children. The author is convinced that relationality, mutuality,
and reflexivity enabled him to conduct an authentic research study on
home educators. Furthermore, the experience left him committed to the responsibility
a researcher has in respecting the
lives of participants, not only during the research process, but through
the final representational form as well. He gained a profound understanding
that the trust given to a researcher by a participant is reciprocal,
and must be honored.
Reflexivity revolves around the
human phenomenon of empathy, the development of which is necessary within
the intimacy of relationship. Furthermore, reflexivity is necessary for
the researcher, in order to develop a "contextualized understanding of
human phenomena and experience" (p. 30).
Ilze Arielle Matiss shares
her experiences with life history research in a chapter from the second
section of the book. As the child of
Latavian immigrants, and a second generation Canadian, she researched
the lives of recent Latavian-Canadian
immigrants, who began new lives after
the breakdown of the Soviet regime.
Drawn to their stories because of her own background, the author
was interested in lives undergoing change,
and in the resulting contextual changes. Throughout the project,
she became convinced that truth is ever changing because truth itself
is a "moment in time" (p. 229). She also came
to believe that the life history method allows for the "possibility for
these changing views and voices, for
future reinterpretations in new moments of time" (p. 228).
Finally, the fourth guiding principle is being caring, sensitive,
and respectful of the subject's confidences, painful experiences,
and expectations. Diligence in respecting and honoring
the research participant must underlie the research process in
order for the project to remain ethical and honorable.
Cole and Knowles's four guiding principles are
in direct contrast to many research methodology textbooks.
Many researchers believe in trying to maintain as much
neutrality as possible throughout the research process,
so that the findings are not tainted with bias.
In addition, many researchers believe the roles of
the researcher and subject should be clearly
enunciated from the onset of the project, the lines
clearly drawn to keep the roles separate from one another.
Cole and Knowles present a compelling challenge to this
traditional qualitative research paradigm.
Another way in which the authors diverge from traditional
research methodology is in their disdain for sampling. Not only
do they believe sampling to be disadvantageous in
qualitative research, they consider the very term to be
positivist and scientific. Instead, Cole and Knowles advocate
the simple use of good judgment
in selecting participants. Consideration should be upon the focus of
the study, possible needs for diversity, and time requirements. Since the
formation of relationships is vital in conducting life histories, they
believe fewer participants to be better
than many, and believe the goal should be one of depth, rather than breadth.
Since mutuality is one of the guiding principles, Cole and Knowles
believe participants should be aware
of the goals of the research study and of the intentions of the researchers.
Contrary to fearing the taint of
bias, they believe the results will
be more authentic if both the researcher and participant have a genuine
commitment to the project and mutually explore the context of the
subject's life through guided conversations.
Cole and Knowles also do not believe in using a
taxonomy of questions. They suggest open-ended questions related
to the focus of inquiry. They recommend interviewing the subject
in different settings, especially
settings with artifacts from the subject's life, since different settings
will provoke different memories. Furthermore, the researcher should question
the subject about visible artifacts, and seek to discover both their
origin and their influence upon the life of the subject. They advise
being open to researchable moments, those moments that are unplanned
and serendipitous, when conversations turn naturally to topics that
divulge contextual information.
Cole and Knowles remind us that
what participants choose to share are generally the events most memorable
to them. Often these experiences are of profound importance to the subject,
they may perhaps even be considered to be epiphanies. Furthermore,
these events are indicative of the subject's very identity, since
personal experiences are the basis of personal perceptions of self-image.
The authors insist that keeping
a reflexive journal throughout the project is critical. Reflecting upon
conversations and the circumstances
surrounding them often leads to new
questions. In addition, the journal
allows the researcher to acknowledge
and monitor his or her subjectivity.
Through the journal, the researcher is better able to notice personal
assumptions and biases by observing how their questions have led the
conversations in particular directions.
In a chapter from the second section of the book, Avi Rose relates
his struggle to acknowledge his own assumptions and biases while
researching the lives of graduate students with learning disabilities.
Since Rose
is also a graduate student who has learned to cope with his learning
disabilities, he realized his perspective was not only that of the
researcher, but also that of the research subject. Although this
commonality was advantageous in forming relationships
with participants and in understanding the issues, Rose found it vital
to utilize a reflexive journal in order to keep his biases from
overshadowing the collective themes emerging from the stories.
Cole and Knowles believe a researcher should begin analyzing data by
reviewing the purpose of the research study, since changes may have
occurred as the study progressed. The researcher should also reconsider who
the audience of the study is to be.
The researcher should formulate preliminary understandings of the data
at this time and consider possible forms for representing the data.
Finally, the authors recommend that it is
useful to devise a timeline and to organize the data chronologically into
categories so that the data is easier to access during analysis.
Due to the inter-subjectivity of a life history, the authors do not
recommend using a computer for data
analysis. They argue that a computer
is limited to reducing and classifying data, while analysis of
qualitative data requires the researcher to think about themes,
to construct connections, and to develop insights. The authors do
recommend sorting, classifying, and coding data, but not so
rigidly that holistic richness is lost. They believe both rationality
and intuition to have a role in analysis. "We become surrounded and
washed by the material, we bathe in it, live it, and breathe it. Like getting
to know a very good friend...eventually we begin to think, just a little
like her." (p. 101)
Cole and Knowles insist there is no quick
or easy way to analyze qualitative data. The
process is tedious, requiring time and patience. The
authors quote Plummer (1983) in order to stress this point:
"In many ways this is the truly
creative part of the work. It entails brooding and
reflecting upon mounds of data
for long periods of time until it 'makes sense' and
'feels right,' and key ideas and themes flow from it.
It is also the hardest process
to describe: the standard technique is to read and make notes, leave
and ponder,
reread without notes, make new
notes, match notes up, ponder, reread, and so on."
(p. 99).
In a refreshing deviation from
traditional research efforts, Cole and Knowles discuss the use
of artistic representational forms. They state, "To craft a life is
to engage in making art" (p. 103). While they believe that
representation should be text-based, they also suggest that
artistic media may enrich the presentation of research in a way that
mere description cannot. The authors suggest the use of visual art,
music, multi-media, poetry, or fictional prose to enhance the
presentation of research. Cole and Knowles further remind
the researcher to remember the audience, the purpose of the
research inquiry, and their own personal skills.
All too often, academic papers are not widely read. With the utilization
of art media, research findings may
become easier to comprehend, and thus, will likely enjoy a wider audience.
In a later chapter, Knowles and
Suzanne Thomas relate their experience in utilizing an alternative
representation of research findings. The
research study first explored the feelings of high school art students
and how they perceived their identities. The students were then instructed
to use art to create constructs of
their realities. Knowles and Thomas
were able to gain insight into the commonalities shared by our society's
high school students. Proving to be
more valuable than the interview material, the artwork rendered rich
understandings much more powerful than simple descriptions would have been.
Another refreshing idea proposed by
Cole and Knowles is their suggestion that
traditional positivist standards for judging
research studies are ill suited to qualitative
research. Measurements such as validity,
reliability, and generalizability are
not appropriate for life histories because
the objectives are to understand the context
of a person's life rather than to put
forth absolute knowledge claims.
The authors discuss attempts to
develop new standards of rigor by other researchers. Among others, they
cite efforts by Merriam (1988) to utilize triangulation,
peer examination, declaration of researcher bias,
and subject participation in an effort
to provide internal validity and reliability.
Merriam also suggests comparing one case study to
another in order to attain external validity and
generalizability. Cole and Knowles
however, still believe the language
and constructs to be positivist-based
Cole and Knowles propose a new
criterion in evaluating the merit of
qualitative research. They propose
that triangulation is achieved through
conversations with the subject and others, observations of the subject
in situ, and through examination of
artifacts. Believing that qualitative research
should be judged according to the overall qualities
of artfulness, authenticity, communicability,
and practicality, the following eight standards are suggested:
- Intentionality: The research should have a clear
intellectual and moral purpose. Furthermore, the
purpose of a life history should always strive to
enhance understanding between an individual and society.
- Researcher Presence: The presence of the researcher should
be felt and should be intersected with the life of the participant.
- Methodological Commitment: The
four principles of relationality, mutuality, reflexivity,
and care/sensitivity/respect should be followed.
- Holistic Quality: The research
should impart a sense of unity and authenticity, rather
than one of compartmentalization.
- Communicability: The research should exhibit resonance
and a potential for connections with the audience
.
- Aesthetic Form: The research should demonstrate an
overall quality of artfulness and appeal.
- Knowledge Claims: The knowledge
claims made by the research should allow for multiple
interpretations, rather than making absolute, objective
statements.
- Contributions: The research should have the potential
to impact individuals and society.
Cole and Knowles offer readers
a sound textbook for qualitative research methodology.
Beyond basic pedagogy, they also challenge many of the
traditional scholarship methods, and propose alternative
methods for conducting qualitative research. Lives
in Context is a must read for graduate students, professors,
and researchers in all fields and at all levels
of expertise.
References
Merriam, S. (1988). Case study research in education: A
qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Plummer, K. (1983). Documents of life: An
introduction to the problems
and literature of a humanistic method. London: George Allen & Unwin.
About the Reviewer
Valerie Hershey is a graduate student in educational
administration at Texas A&M-Commerce; University. As an
administrator in the public school system, her research
interests include
community involvement in schools, organizational change,
and student motivation.
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