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Branscombe, N. Amanda; Castle,
Kathryn; Dorsey, Anne G; Surbeck, Elaine; and Taylor, Janet B.
(2003). Early Childhood Curriculum: A Constructivist
Perspective. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Pp. xix + 379.
$37.96 ISBN 0-618-14808-6
Reviewed by Karl F. Wheatley
Cleveland State University
July 24, 2002
What should the curriculum
be in early childhood education? This is no trivial question. We
may not learn everything we ever need to know in kindergarten, as
one author suggested, but the foundations for all aspects of
learning and development are built in the critical years between
birth and age eight. In an increasing number of states, future
primary grade teachers now receive their training through early
childhood education programs (PK-2 or PK-3), rather than through
elementary education programs. This policy shift has brought the
"early childhood" traditions of play, projects, and
child-initiated learning into clearer conflict with the current
national emphasis on accountability and subject matter standards.
Within this policy context, Early Childhood Curriculum: A
Constructivist Perspectiveprovides a distinctly
constructivist answer to the question of what the curriculum
should be in early childhood education.
The constructivist perspective of
the text is heavily Piagetian, with quotes from Piaget, as well
as details of his research and theory appearing throughout the
book. The theories and research of several of Piaget's
followers, such as Constance Kamii, Rheta DeVries, and Lawrence
Kohlberg are also discussed. Sociocultural theorists (i.e.,
"social constructivists") such as Vygotsky, or early
childhood researchers who take a distinctly socio-cultural
perspective (e.g., Janet Gonzalez-Mena, 1997) appear
occasionally, but less frequently than those from the
cognitive-developmental or individual constructivist tradition.
The book contains a substantial number of suggestions about group
processes, scaffolding, and creating classroom
community—ideas that appeal to those who embrace a more
social constructivist perspective on education. However, the
descriptions and analysis of these processes generally reflect
cognitive-developmental perspectives and research.
A central premise of the book is
that constructivist theory and research—especially
information about how children learn and the nature of the
knowledge to be learned—provide the starting point for
developing curriculum. For example, under the heading
"using constructivist assumptions," the authors
write, "a constructivist teacher begins with what is known
about the child and the child's way of knowing rather than
from curriculum or national standards" (p. 32). Similarly,
they note
It is this focus on the thinking
of the learners rather than on content that differentiates a
constructivist approach from traditional teaching. In fact,
curriculum cannot be considered to follow a constructivist
approach when the focus is on content rather than the
child's thinking. (p. 181)
Consistent with the writings of
Piaget, Kamii, and DeVries, the broad goals of promoting
children's development and autonomy are central to the
authors' vision regarding the aims of early childhood
curriculum. These goals are woven throughout eachchapter
of the book, and are the strongest unifying theme of the
curriculum ideas and teaching methods the authors advocate.
Indeed, autonomy is central to their definition of
constructivism, which emphasizes children creating knowledge
rather than "repeating what others consider important
knowledge" (p. 10).
The book has three sections: 1)
What are constructivist aims and assumptions?, 2) What are key
components of constructivist curriculum?, and 3) What are
constructivist practices?
The three chapters in section one
(i.e., What are constructivist aims and assumptions?) address the
aims of constructivist curriculum (chapter 1), how constructivist
assumptions guide practice (chapter 2), and learning and the
three kinds of knowledge addressed within Piaget's theory
(chapter 3). The discussions of how children learn emphasize
learning through active physical and mental engagement with
authentic tasks of their own choosing, learning from cognitive
conflict, refining and coordinating olds ways of thinking,
representing their knowledge, and through learning from other
people. The authors also emphasize that learners revise their
thinking, support one another, are responsible for their own
learning, and that learning is a community activity. Descriptions
of main features of constructivist curriculum highlight the way
in which teachers consider the processes by which children learn,
address problem-solving, organize materials, take an active role
throughout the day and relate curriculum to the context in which
they teach. Examples of classroom activities are woven in, as
when descriptions from the Reggio Emilia approach are used to
illustrate the role of cognitive conflict in learning.
Less attention is given to what
curriculum is and what the goals of curriculum should be.
The authors provide varied definitions of curriculum, and note
that "our definition of curriculum goes beyond
content" (p. 6), but do not indicate what their definition
is. Among a list of five ways to use constructivist assumptions
to guide practice is the suggestion to "begin your
curriculum planning with what you know about the nature of the
learner and the nature of what is to be learned." Judging
from the remainder of the book, this largely means responding to
children's interests and perceived developmental needs,
allowing them to construct knowledge as they will, and providing
learning opportunities that may support their movement to the
next step in development.
Teachers' ideas are
mentioned as a source of curriculum goals, and subject matter is
mentioned a number of times throughout the book. Subject matter
standards are mentioned, but briefly or sometimes skeptically,
and while the authors suggest ways of indicating what standards a
lesson addresses, the tone usually suggests that this is
something teachers would only do if others required them to do
it. The authors never suggest that teachers use the national
content standards for various disciplines as a starting point for
curriculum planning. Rather, the authors express strong faith
that active engagement in authentic curriculum processes will
lead to the appropriate student outcomes. For example,
"Constructivist teachers recognize that when children are
engaged in authentic tasks in which they are spontaneously
interested, they will construct the knowledge necessary to meet
the teachers' objectives" (p. 109). All of this is
consistent with a skepticism towards subject matter and standards
that is common in early childhood education.
The first section of the book
concludes with a chapter that serves as a primer on Piagetian
theory. The authors provide an overview of main concepts,
processes and stages of development in Piaget's theory.
They address Piaget's three types of knowledge, with
discussion of related concepts such as action, empirical
abstraction, and the role of objects. The chapter concludes with
details about and examples of children's representational
thought. Sprinkled throughout this chapter are numerous detailed
points about the nature of children's thinking at different
ages, and the sequences and processes involved in
children's thinking. Relevant examples of children's
activities and comments provide helpful illustrations of the
content of this chapter.
The second section of the book
(i.e., What are key components of constructivist curriculum?)
discusses authentic tasks, choice, and decision making (chapter
4), social interaction, play and project (chapter 5), problem
posing, problem solving, and reflection (chapter 6), and the role
of community (chapter 7). Relevant research and Piagetian
concepts are woven throughout these chapters appropriately, and
some excellent—even inspiring—examples from
children's play and projects enliven the text. The authors
provide strong discussions of the role of problem posing and
problem solving in children's education, and provide
practical suggestions for games that engage children in problem
solving. They examine many of the important issues in creating
caring classroom communities that provide for intellectual safety
and promote self-regulated morality. What distinguishes this
section of the text from similar sections in other early
childhood curriculum texts is the emphasis on supporting
children's autonomy, and the inclusion of guidelines and
teaching ideas that strongly support autonomous thinking. The
ideas of leading experts in applications of Piagetian
theory—such as Duckworth, Kamii, and DeVries are sprinkled
throughout this section of the text.
The third section of the text
(i.e., What are constructivist practices?) addresses building a
constructivist curriculum (chapter 8), constructivist models of
instruction (chapter 9), and constructivist documentation,
assessment, and evaluation (chapter 10). A variety of practical
curriculum issues are addressed, including helping children
understand the expectations of constructivist curriculum,
implementing constructivist curriculum gradually, and ideas for
building curriculum around children's interests and
developmental needs. This section also includes a very helpful
discussion of dealing with students' diverse backgrounds
and needs. Interesting details are provided regarding
constructivist models of instruction, such as High/Scope, the
Kamii and DeVries approaches, and the
"constructionism" model of Seymour Papert and the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Epistemology and Learning
Group. The treatment of assessment and evaluation covered topics
one would expect, including various types of authentic assessment
and an interesting section on documentation of the type practiced
in the Italian schools in Reggio Emilia and Pistoia. Some
examples, such as a kindergarten teacher's analysis of
samples of children's work, provided concrete insights into
children's knowledge and skills.
The special features of the book
include regularly appearing discussions among six teachers who
represent different perspectives on constructivist curriculum.
The teachers raise real issues, including a few important
dilemmas and misconceptions regarding constructivist teaching.
This feature adds spice to the text, while some fairly detailed
descriptions of constructivist practices and classroom
activities, drawn from real teachers in a variety of settings,
added intriguing examples and details.
The book has three very important
strengths: 1) its focus on autonomy as a central goal of
education, 2) the detail and content it provided regarding
children's thinking and the nature of children's
knowledge, and 3) the many descriptions of
"constructivist" teaching practices.
Perhaps the most important
strength of the text is the focus on autonomy, which the authors
define as being self-governed, in both intellectual and moral
matters. While a great many conservative critics have
misconstrued autonomy to imply disregard for others, the authors
are careful to point out that their definition implies
"consideration of the needs and desires of others"
(p. 24) and an ability to co-operate with others. The emphasis on
autonomy was quite refreshing. While other researchers and
educators have emphasized this goal, in many texts autonomy is
just another term that is presented, rather than a central
commitment of an educational approach. The text would be further
strengthened by more discussion of the way in which autonomy
prepares individuals for adulthood and for being productive
members of a democratic society.
The second major strength of the
text is the detailed information provided on child development
and learning, including attention to the way in which development
and learning relate to curriculum goals and processes. It was
helpful that these details were distributed in various parts of
the text and accompanied by relevant descriptions of classroom
activities. Such information is often extremely difficult for
students to master if introduced all at once and in a largely
decontextualized way. Similarly, incorporating additional details
about "constructivist" theory and research into the
various chapters helped illustrate the importance of this
information for various aspects of curriculum. Because many
students seem to have forgotten much of what they learned in a
child psychology course by the time they get to early childhood
curriculum courses, the approach of the text will provide a
helpful refresher.
The third main strength of the
text is the wealth of guidelines, strategies, and examples it
provides about the teaching processes of constructivist early
childhood curriculum. In discussing play, projects, and other
components of constructivist curriculum, the authors also
provided balanced attention to infants and toddlers,
preschoolers, and primary-grade children.
I believe this text could be
improved if it included a greater diversity of voices regarding
constructivist curriculum. The text's strong emphasis on
types of knowledge was helpful, but I wanted to also hear from
scholars addressed other important curriculum outcomes, such as
the different levels of knowledge represented by Bloom's
taxonomy, or outcomes such as skills, dispositions and feelings
(e.g., Katz & Chard, 1989; Meier, 1995).
Similarly, I thought the text
would have been enriched by including the voices of teachers and
researchers who believe in so-called "constructivist"
teaching, but who also believe that subject matter and content
standards should definitely influence curriculum. The authors
address subject matter and standards, but their treatment of
subject matter felt half-hearted in most places. The National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has
indicated in several position statements that they believe that
subject matter and standards are critical elements of effective
curriculum (i.e., see Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992,and
www.naeyc.org). Including those voices that look more favorably
on subject matter and standards, and that would grant subject
matter standards a more prominent role in curriculum planning,
seems like an important step to take. Introducing these
contrasting voices would then provide the authors with an
authentic opportunity for more fully explaining some aspects of
their perspectives on curriculum content and
design.
The book could also be improved by
providing specific curriculum suggestions and examples for each
of the three age groups it addresses (infants and toddlers,
preschoolers, and primary-grade children). The authors do a
wonderful job of covering the vast terrain of learning theory,
child development, play, projects, and other elements of
curriculum from birth through age eight. However, the range of
curriculum included in the age span from infancy (i.e., object
permanence and diaper changes) through third grade (i.e.,
decimals, the scientific method and citizenship) is difficult to
address well in one text. As this text moves into its second
edition and beyond, as it should, either providing this
additional detail regarding curriculum for specific age
groups—or perhaps providing separate editions for those age
groups—would be welcomed.
Regarding the pedagogy of the
book, the authors stated that one of their aims was to foster the
autonomy and development of those who use the book. One way in
which they achieved this was through the conflicting viewpoints
introduced in the discussions among the six teachers. These
discussions raised important issues, and may certainly induce
thought-provoking disequilibrium among many readers. Also, the
authors used sparingly the official position statements from
national organizations, such NAEYC. While listing NAEYC's
curriculum guidelines for curriculum early in the book would have
been informative, one can also argue that presenting such
"received wisdom" from an authoritative organization
could foreclose students' reflections on alternate
perspectives on appropriate curriculum. Nevertheless, the authors
themselves sometimes "tell" readers in a definitive
way what constructivist curriculum is or is not. I wondered what
ideas future teachers would construct from the book, if the
authors simply presented many of their positions alongside some
of the contrasting viewpoints described above, and left it up to
readers to resolve the issues at hand for themselves.
I found the book to be enjoyable
and easy to read, except where the nuances of Piagetian theory
add the inevitable complexity to the text. Interesting and
appropriate examples of children and classrooms from infancy
through the primary grades are woven throughout the text, along
with teachers' reflections on teaching, children, and
learning. The text unfolded in a rather organic way, with a less
linear and clear-cut structure than some texts. Arguably, this
type of organization and flow reflects well the somewhat emergent
properties of early childhood curriculum, and given the
respectful tone of the text, reading the text was like an
enjoyable journey.
This text provides a crucial
contribution to current discussions of the construction of early
childhood curriculum. The authors' strong focus on
individual constructivism may help keep teachers' focused
on individual students and the details of their personal
interpretation of reality—issues that sometimes fade too
far into the background when social constructivist perspectives
dominate educational discussion.
By taking a strong stand for the
importance of autonomy as an educational outcome, the message of
this text serves to guard against the educational dangers of a
too-great fascination with educational standards and
accountability. As NAEYC works to revise its curriculum standards
and the nation wrestles with the Bush administration's
educational accountability systems, our national discussions of
what the curriculum should be in early childhood education would
benefit from many of the curriculum ideas the authors promote in
this book.
References
Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T.
(Eds.). (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and
assessment for young children (Vol. 1). Washington, D.C.: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Gonzalez-Mena, J. (1997).
Multicultural issues in child care (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield Publishing Company.
Katz, L. G., & Chard, S. C.
(1989). Engaging children's minds: The project approach.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Meier, D. (1995). The power of
their ideas: Lessons for America from a small school in Harlem.
Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
About the
Reviewer
Karl F. Wheatley is
an Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education at Cleveland
State University. His research interests include early childhood
curriculum, teacher efficacy beliefs, and educational reform.
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