Perraton, H. & Lentell, H. (Eds.). (2004). Policy for Open and Distance Learning. Reviewed by Dan Drane and Rosalie Ward, University of Southern Mississippi

Perraton, H. & Lentell, H. (Eds.). (2004). Policy for Open and Distance Learning. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Pp XV + 267 $141 (Hardcover)   ISBN 0 415 26306 9 $42 (Paperback)   ISBN 0 415 26307 7 Reviewed by Dan Drane and Rosalie Ward University of Southern Mississippi February 2, 2005 Policy for Open and Distance Learning, edited by Hilary Perraton and Helen Lentall, is a volume of thirteen chapters dedicated to providing a world review of distance education and open learning. Its purpose is to help individuals “allocate resources between educational alternatives and to do so rationally” by examining the options of open and distance learning. Throughout the book, you will find the authors use terms such as open and distance learning and e-learning interchangeably with the online learning. The book acknowledges the escalating role of distance education and addresses the strategies and organization of governments and institutions that have been successful with its implementation and adoption. The chapters highlight arrangements that are flourishing, promote the progress of distance and open learning, and recognize issues that are likely to encumber the system’s development. The overall goal is to aid educational decision and policy makers by allowing them to profit from the experience of others and by answering the questions of “Does it work, and if so what policies are needed to make it work effectively?” (p. 3). The contributing authors of the book “have looked at education in both developing and industralised countries, at all levels of education, and using a variety of technologies” (p. 3). It was important to take this universal approach in order for the reader to gain a clearer understanding of distance and open learning globally and to ascertain the impact of changing technology on education as a whole. In order to maintain the focus and purpose for the book, the authors purposely omitted three themes that are already abundant in literature. First, there are no arguments for or against the use of distance and open learning. Second, it is not intended to be used as a toolkit of instructive guidelines. The book simply identifies policy options and describes their strengths and weaknesses. Lastly, it is not a management guide to operating open and distance learning programs. Policy for Open and Distance Learning explores prior decisions regarding open and distance learning as they relate to educational policy as a whole. Policy for Open and Distance Learning is divided into five parts that cover the topics of policy agenda and its context; inputs in terms of learners, staff and resources; processes including organizational structures, technologies, globalization, and governance; outputs or benefits set in the context of costs; and a conclusion. These five parts are built around and emphasize two basic themes: 1) the maturity of open and distance learning and its place in education, and 2) the role of state and formal institutions. Also included in the book are useful and informative tables, figures, and text blocks enhancing and elaborating on the information provided by the authors. Part 1 Part 1 is composed of the first two chapters of the book. These two chapters serve to orient the reader to the open and distance learning policy agenda and its context. The first chapter begins by providing a theoretical framework for the importance of analyzing policy and the rationale for utilizing distance and open learning. One of points discussed in Chapter 1 concerns the second basic theme. The authors indicate that because of a widely accepted neo-liberal agenda, there has been an erosion of the consensus that “governments, or their institutions, should provide, fund, monitor and accredit education and play the lead role in doing so” (p. 5). With the move away from a centralized control or guidance system, more and more educational institutions are dealing with decisions concerning funding, technology, accreditation, and providing access to education. Individual students must now begin to meet the costs of education, discover the new technologies delivering educational opportunities, and face the new challenges of globalization and the competition between universities for students while at the same time, dealing with the limitations of existing educational systems. Chapter 2 by Hilary Perraton looks at the varied uses of open and distance learning throughout the world, both in developing and industrialized nations. Perraton begins by examining open and distance learning in its most fundamental form of basic education progressing to schooling, tertiary education providing alternate routes for students, and vocational training. He identifies the chief influences that have driven its development as “a desire to widen access, by an intention and by the hope of containing costs” (p. 18). The main policy options open to the various stakeholders are then discussed with particular emphasis given to collaboration strategies, funding, technology, and quality. The process of open and long distance learning has been driven by a desire to “widen access, by an intention to strengthen education in the interests of the economy, by technological opportunities, and by the hope of containing costs” (p.18). The dominant theme of the process appears to be the improvement of education probably because of the recognition that the more education available to the population, the better the possibilities for improved economies, and a higher standard of living. Geography has also been a factor in the push toward open and long distance learning opportunities. Advancements in technology have made it possible to reach more individuals, thus making greater access to education. The delivery of education via technology, in many instances, has helped to reduce the costs of education; however, this is not always true. Containment of costs in relation to e-learning versus tradition education is certainly a legitimate concern for policy makers. Another valid concern in regards to e-learning is teachers’ attitudes. Perraton indicates the attitudes of teachers seem to be ambivalent. This is in keeping with what much of the literature on teachers’ attitudes report. While some embrace with enthusiasm the process, others are concerned about the introduction of e-learning. These teachers worry about increased work load, reduction of staff, and the learning of new technology. Technology is viewed as being a hindrance to the long-term interests of the educational profession. Nevertheless, the process of open and long distance learning is being driven partly by the push for new markets and by the competition of universities to provide services. One interesting point Perraton mentions is that the “idea of widening educational participation in the interests of equity” (p.39) has not been a factor in the growth of e-learning. It is pointed out that policy makers must not only address these new issues but also reanalyze old policy decisions due to the prevalence of e-learning. Part 2 The four chapters making up Part 2 deal with the inputs of students, staff, and resources. Inputs can be described as components of production as well as the amount of effort used to produce a product. Therefore, when we examine open and long distance learning process, we need to know and understand the deployment of the three types of inputs found in education. In conjunction with the inputs, planners need to assess or analyze the potential audience, the diversity or variety of audiences, and how to support the audience that is being served by the process. We are reminded that this analysis is necessary and important because it cannot be assumed that all audiences are the same in terms of characteristics, needs, and motivation. Chapter 3 provides some approaches for learning about the potential audience being served. Janet Jenkins, the author, begins by emphasizing that most distance learners participate in the process by choice and because it is more convenient. Thus, the relations between the learners and the educational providers are different than those found in traditional schools. Acknowledging the differences in student and provider relations leads to the questions, “Why do you need to know about students?” (p. 45), and “What kinds of students on what kinds of courses are using open and long distance learning?” (p. 46). Answering these two questions means that planners must consider and explore the nature, characteristics, distribution, learning needs, costs, environments, and circumstances of potential learners. Based on research, Jenkins suggests that there are some main themes that help to answer the two questions. The themes emerging are: Typical long distance learners may be young or old, but on the average, appear to be a little older and mature than their peers taking similar courses. Long distance education is a good way to involve female learners. Distance learning opens doors to those who are disadvantaged in traditional education. Distance learning provides flexibility. Individuals can have both family and work responsibilities while taking courses. Educational backgrounds vary. There is no evidence so far that indicates how the personality type or learning style affects the attitudes of long distance learners. The most important characteristic appears to be motivation. Like Perraton in Chapter 2, Jenkins believes the most recent and significant development in education is online teaching and learning, but like any development, online learning has both pluses and minuses. Pluses included such things as the potential to create a better environment, enhance interaction between students and teachers, and access to more information and resources. However, teachers and educators are still exploring the best ways to use technology application, how to improve teaching and learning, and how to identify the new skills teachers and students need to acquire. According to Jenkins, little is known about the impact on learning and learners over time in relation to the lost time of face-to-face situations in the classroom. In spite of the potential drawbacks and unknowns, nations around the world, especially in developing nations and poor countries, are pursuing the continued development and expansion of online learning as the best way to give more access to educational opportunities by the greatest number of the population via the Internet. Central to the idea of the push toward online learning is the identification of information about the potential audience needed to determine whether long distance education will work. This information can be obtained from educational statistics, labor market information, interviews, questionnaires, and surveys. The information gained is interpreted, and programs are designed around what the data reveal about student priorities and interests in order to assist policy makers in their decision making process. Market research and analysis are critical tools used in the process of determining the need and use for online education. The factor of globalization along with technology and the need for information plays a major role in expanding distance education. Distance learning via the Internet is being adapted by various countries to meet the needs of their students. They are finding the Internet provides new possibilities for international teaching and learning. In closing Chapter 3, Jenkins offers some useful generalizations on how to approach the ever changing and expanding audience of long distance learning. A few of them are: Select media and technology accessible to students. Financial cost to students should be affordable. Time requirements should be realistic. Learning support should be available to all. Educational culture should be taken into account. Learning systems should account for different learning styles. Student motivation is an important factor in participation and completion. Chapter 4 is written by Szarina Abdullah and provides to us a picture of Asia, the region that is reported to have the world’s largest student enrollment in open and long distance education. Abdullah approaches the topic of the Asian experience with distance and open learning by discussing various research studies concerning the characteristics and needs of Asian students. In spite of the differences among students from different regional areas of Asia, Abdullah reports that there are certain characteristics common among Asian distance and open learning. These characteristics, along with others mentioned, contribute to a phenomenon common among distance learners: high attrition and low graduate rate. Among these characteristics are: Majority of students range in age from 20 to 30 years. Males outnumber female students. Most perceive distance learning as a way to improve their qualifications Most know little about distance learning. Most have a poor academic background. Most are inclined towards pragmatism, not interested in theories. Teachers outnumber other professions among distance learners. Other studies are discussed dealing with learning styles, student needs, social perceptions of distance learning, success rate, the impact of distance learning, and what policies are needed to develop distance learning. Some of the findings of these studies indicated that successful students have three main elements: learning strategies, teaching strategies, and learner focus of control. In Asian society, the tradition of getting an education from a school and university still has a strong hold while in the United States, Britain, Canada, or Australia, distance learning is a manner of education proudly accepted and touted. The success rate among students in distance learning in different countries is also given. For instance, in Africa, there is a 50% dropout rate. India has a success rate of 22.5 to 34 % while in Korea, the range is 14.5 to 34%. After examining the information and results of various studies of distance learning in Asia, Abdullah concludes, “In the final analysis of the performance of any educational system we can look at graduates as the outcomes of the system and their contribution to society. If we gather evidence to show that graduates of open and distance education contribute to the social, economic and political development of nation building, we should be able to convince skeptics of open and distance education” (p. 70). However, not much research has been done following up on how graduates of distance learning programs perform. The few studies that exist show the graduates do perform well and contribute to the organization or business where they are employed. What is needed to further fuel the development of distance learning in Asia are the formulation of policies bringing distance learning to the forefront of national development. So far in Part 2, we have read that open and distance learning students have similar or common characteristics regardless of the geographical and cultural environment. We have also learned open and distance learning makes different demands on students and changes the way students learn when compared to traditional education. It was also indicated that different demands are also placed upon the teachers, staff, and management involved in the educational distance learning process. Thus, Chapter 5, staffing, development, and management, addresses the input of these individuals. People are the key in any organization. As such, people are a major concern in distance education. There are some who assume that online education requires a new division of labor with a different staff undertaking the creation, development, implementation, and teaching of the online courses. However, in most situations, it is the same teacher who teaches in the classroom who handles the online course responsibility. This makes the role of staff policy and staff development a very important issue due to the differences involved the complexities of distance education. Santosh Panda, author of Chapter 5, presents various views on distance learning and explores research dealing with several approaches or models used in educational setting. For instance, Peters (2003) analyzed eight models dealing with instruction ranging from correspondence education to virtual learning. Peters concluded that “distance education is by far the most open and flexible form of learning and teaching” (p. 78). Panda’s purpose in writing this chapter is “to explain how the roles of staff in distance education are different when compared with traditional campus-based classroom teaching” (p. 79). While several differences exist between distance learning and campus-based learning, three features, not found in conventional education settings, are “the use of instructional media by specialist staff, the adoption of quasi-industrial processes by production and distribution, and the use of communication for teaching and administrative purposes to bridge the gap between the institution and the students” (p. 80). There are also differences in organization, utilization of space, and dynamics of staff development and management. One of the main concerns in distance learning is the issue of faculty workload and faculty productivity. Role clarification, coordination, and networking are used to facilitate the management of the various roles of faculty and staff. Every faculty and staff member should have an induction to distance education and how it fits into the institutional goals, operations, work culture, ethics, and team building within the organization. Panda re-emphasizes the overall message of the other authors. As educators, we need to think of the people involved in the system of teaching and learning. Distance learning can greatly enhance equity and promote lifelong learning opportunities. As with almost every educational and institutional endeavor, the bottom line is always finding resources and how to determine who pays for the service and who benefits from the service. Perraton, in Chapter 6, explains that generally speaking, most funding for education and training comes from one or more of five sources: government, the learners themselves, community support, private or nongovernmental sector, and from funding agencies and donors. Usually, the funding is mixed and the person or organization selecting the funding deals with politics and economics and engages in trade-offs in order to acquire the resources needed. Part 3 Part 3 focuses on process. Process is an important topic because process deals with the concerns about management and deployment of resources and outcomes, organizational structure, the choices of technology, the changes brought about by globalization, governance, quality control, and accreditation. Chapter 7 examines organization options which are different from those of conventional education and are probably less familiar to many educators. The authors, Greville Rumble and Colin Latchem, examine the merits of single-mode institutions, limited to open and distance learning, or dual-mode institutions, combining distance and conventional approaches under one administration. They look at strengths and weaknesses of the various models of organization and at the emergent and future prospects for e-distance education. In the 1987 book, A Short Guide to Distance Education, W. Perry and G. Rumble considered three types of organizational models: single-mode institutions, dual-mode institutions, and distance-education consortia of educational, publishing, broadcasting, and other organizations. Their conclusion was that single-mode institutions structured solely to distance education were expensive to develop and therefore needed to be big, so as to achieve economies of scale. Dual-mode institutions offered courses exactly the same content whether on or off-campus. The distance-education consortia was a really good idea but was seldom used or successful. A brief history of the organizations patterns of distance education is provided illustrating the development up to the present time. We learn that distance learning began with correspondence school as early as 1840 (p.118). First and second generation distance based single-mode institutions were successful because of the adoption of the industrialized approach to education. This approach involved the mechanization, standardization, the use of capital-intensive technologies, centralized planning and control, division of labor, reduction in the autonomy of academic producers, and an objectivism of the production process. However, this bureaucratization of education was not limited to distance education. Today, the post-Ford models involving product innovation, process variability, and labor responsibility have become the favored approach. Third generation distance education includes rapid response to the demands of the consumer, more power to academics to control and change course content and pace, and the providing of a more constructivist learning environment. While some institutions found the single-mode model to fit their needs, other institutions favored the dual-mode approach. There are basically two types of approaches utilizing the dual mode approach. One approach is the asynchronous correspondence methodologies using print, correspondence, multimedia, and Internet or web-based learning which can encourage autonomous and constructivist learning. The second approach functions by extending the traditional classroom by using face-to-face instruction via satellite television and other connective technologies which tends to reinforced teacher-centered approaches. Within the framework of the dual-mode, adaptations or variations have been created. These “different approaches to the organization of dual-mode systems” have been “attempts to make distance education as good as conventional education” (p. 124). In addition, higher education has had to find ways to reach more students and a greater diversity of students, to provide for nontraditional students, to meet demands for expansion while facing cuts in programs and staffing, to generate more income, and deal with the mainstreaming of technology into teaching and learning. One of the authors, Rumble, has suggested the dual-mode approach gives a distinct advantage to institutions over the single-mode. The dual-mode approach allows for greater flexibility and offers a wider range of options to the students. The third type of organizational model, the consortia, is increasing in frequency of utilization. Due to globalization, international competition, telecommunications, the need to leverage complementary strengths for a greater market share, and increase geographical coverage, the number of consortia is increasing. Distance education providers are teaming with other providers in providing courses and training. For instance, the American Education Consortium is made up of sixty institutional and affiliate members providing specialized courses to its members via the Internet. This example underscores the globalization, internationalism, and competitive commercialization which has resulted due to the development of networking, partnering, and interdependence of educational institutions and organizations in distance learning. Entering into this picture, we also have corporate universities and training centers created to provide programs relevant to business efficiency, skill development, and employee performance. In some instances, the education and training programs have even been contracted through independent educational institutions. Corporations are recognizing by providing the necessary training and knowledge to their workers, they can not only be more productive and effective, but they can also retain and advance the best employees. The knowledge worker has become a very valuable commodity to businesses and corporations. Over time, it seemed only natural then to move toward for- profit-institutions of distance learning. Initially, an American phenomenon, the for-profit model is expanding in numerous countries around the globe. These for-profit institutions have arisen through a combination of factors including: “dissatisfaction with the responsiveness of traditional institutions to meet the professional and vocational needs of working adults who require the convenience, year-round compressed courses, and individually tailored and individually satisfying flexible learning; recognition of the enormous potential of the educational market; and e-commerce entrepreneurism” (pp. 131-132). Such institutions are borderless and very competitive with traditional educational institutions. In keeping with the expansion of distance education and technology, the term “virtual institution” has become the metaphor for online enrolment, distribution, tuition and administration. Cunningham and Ryan, et al. in their book, The Business of Borderless Education: The Impact of Corporate and Virtual Providers on Higher Education Provision, suggest virtual education may be thought of in two ways. First, it can be an institution which offers conventional services via information and communication technology. Second, it can be viewed as a “hollow” organization that subcontracts its conventional services to other organizations. Basically, the concept of the virtual institution or campus, both in higher education and in high schools, is still experimental and is used as a publishing tool rather than as an interactive tool. Looking ahead into the future, we know that distance education is certainly changing and evolving and will continue to do so as “new players enter the field, exploiting the possibilities of e-commerce, and that time-honored structures and systems may wither or be swept away” (p.136). An important question remains to be answered. Will these institutions “recognize and respond to the need for risk-taking, responsiveness, results-oriented programmes and services, reciprocity and relationships and transform their organizational, administrative and academic systems, or whether new providers will prove quicker, more flexible and more effective in responding to the need for a working-learning culture and infrastructure?” (p.137). Face-to-face study, print, broadcasting (radio and television), cassettes, video-conferencing, computer-related learning—What do all these thing have in common? According to Chapter 8, the answer is technology. Throughout the book, technology has been identified as one of the major forces driving the creating, development, implementation, and expansion of open and long distance learning. The advancements that have occurred in technology have also played a major role in the globalization and spurred the communication process among organizations, businesses, individuals, and governments. Technology, while bringing about new relationships in globalization and economic development, has also presented challenges in its use in various environments. Chapter 8 approaches these challenges with a discussion concerning the issues involved in “regulation of telecommunications, educational access to communications media, and national policies in relation to the digital divide” (p.41). These issues lead into another major challenge of decision and policy making in terms “of the most appropriate ways of using technologies within education, about choices between them for a specific educational purpose, about staff development in relation to them and about their costs” (p.141). Perraton addresses the issues of technologies in education by proposing a set of criteria that can be used to make choices in the selection of media in education. Moses examines the all important cost factor involved in the use of technology in computer-based education. Together they provide an understanding of the issues surrounding technology and a planning approach for the use of technologies in education. Perraton begins by identifying three purposes for communication technologies: “to widen access to education, to raise it quality, and to reform it” (p.142). Decision and policy makers combining their experience with older and newer technologies can then examine the “convenience, constraints, curriculum and cost” in utilization of technology. These same factors are dealt with in an international environment as well as in a local situation. Perraton provides a discussion of each of these factors as well as providing detailed example in tables of the types of technology and computer use for communication with students. Moses then continues the discussion of technology in education by providing information on the categories of cost: professional development, support, connectivity, software, replacement costs, and retrofitting. He concludes that “educational institutions all over the world have used computer systems successfully and creatively to enrich, revitalize and reform their educational activity” (p. 156). The question in educational systems everywhere “is not whether to integrate computers and connectivity into their educational programmes, but how to do it effectively and at levels that yield a true educational benefit” (p. 156). Globalization has been mentioned as one of the major results of the advancement of technology and communication. Needless to say, there are numerous issues involved in the globalization of education. Among them are: the retention of cultural and national identify in a borderless education market, policy decisions, costs, escalating demands of lifelong learning, quality of distance education learning experiences, delivery methods of educational programs, learner support systems, teachers and faculty concerns, accessibility, accreditation, organizational structures, to name a few. Farrell, Ryan, and Hope, authors of Chapter 9, discuss these issues as they relate to education and globalization. They believe that while globalization presents many challenging issues, it can bring benefits to education “with its promise of sharing intellectual resources” (p.179). It is no secret that open and long distance education has faced an ongoing struggle in the establishment of its quality, credibility, and its legitimacy within the academic community due to “a history of poor-quality provision” (p. 181). With the increasing expansion of open and long distance education into the global academic market, there are even more concerns about its status, good practices, standards, and reputation. Bernadette Robinson, author of Chapter 10 on governance, accreditation and quality assurance indicates that attention needs to be paid to the governance, policies, and action overseeing the global trends in electronic delivery of educational programs. This chapter examines three overlapping areas of governance, accreditation, and quality assurance of open and distance education. Governance activities usually include matters of funding, regulation, and the delivery of long distance education. The state’s role in this process is continually redefined and changing from various areas and individuals. Models for governance also vary widely and are shaped by specific traditions, history, and existing bureaucracy. To help deal with these and other challenges, Robinson suggests that several questions should be considered. All of them deal with the examination of issues, policies, and procedures overseeing the accreditation and quality assurance. Other factors entering into Chapter 10’s discussion are those of mechanisms of governance, market forces that aid the control of quality, voluntary professional associations overseeing in varying degrees the process, accreditation standards for academic programs, and what limitation should exist of the governing bodies, policies, and procedures. The author offers a comprehensive list of questions that planners and managers need to ask themselves when planning institutional policy and strategies for quality assurance. Basically, this chapter emphasizes the need and the importance of establishing guidelines and policies to guarantee the best practices and quality assurance possible in open and long distance education. In some countries, it is apparent that this type of planning is going on while in others, there is little evidence of effective planning in regards to open and distance education. Robinson offers some helpful measures for both governmental and institutional external and internal regulations of quality. The author believes that there will be a continued international push towards the improvement of governance, accreditation, and quality assurance; however, the warning is also given that these issues should not take precedence at the expense of the value and worth of education. Part 4 Reehana Raza begins Chapter 11 concerning the benefits of open and long distance education for students, labor force, employers, and society with the statement, “The ultimate test of policy is in its outcomes, and the education sector is no exception” (p.209). This statement sets the tone for Part 4 on the outputs of open and long distance education. It is important to realize that open and long distance institutions must justify and be accountable for decisions revolving around educational output because they play a key role in the dissemination of education through their flexibility, accessibility, and ability to communicate to individuals at a distance via the Internet. The levels of knowledge acquisition in various countries are known to have a major impact on economies, innovations, productivity, democratization, and human rights issues. Therefore, the effectiveness of open and long distance education has become an important issue for policy and decision makers. Because of the nature of distance education, the diversity of its students, and differences in ability and socio-economic backgrounds, it is difficult to do the research and obtain the data to really assess the output of open and long distance education. Certainly there are benefits, but it is difficult to measure them. However, Raza does present a look at some existing evidence of outcomes resulting from open and long distance in the areas of basic education, teacher education, and higher education. So, where do we start the process of measuring or evaluating output/outcomes? First of all, it has to be determined what outcome to measure, for what purpose, and at what level? The difficulty of making these decisions stems from the non-traditional audience that is served and whether or not, the outcomes are examined in terms of private gains for the student, family, or employer or in terms of the social gains for the benefit of society. Another contributing factor to the difficulty is the level of development of the region or country being examined. Access to data, data collection, and data management have also proven to be part of the difficulty when looking at the outputs of open and long distance education. Some of the methods of examination of outputs have included using indicators such as graduates, examination results, course completions, a value-added approach, impact of educational intervention, labor productivity, economic growth, and improvement in the areas of civic responsibility and decrease in crime rates. Another set of problems that exist for researchers is the difficulty in conducting comparative studies and carrying on work that requires receiving data from different institutions. The quality of data, the differences in the standards and expectations of different institutions, and the variation of the types of output compound the difficulty of the examination process of outputs. So, keeping all these issues in mind, what kind of studies are found? The area where the least amount of information about outputs is found is in the outputs of basic education which is used as an alternative to formal primary education or to support primary and secondary education. Basic education has gained a certain level of legitimacy because of its enrollment. It is a means of providing education for those in existing employment, adults and children, and able to reach individual in isolated areas who previously have been unable to access educational opportunities. However, Raza makes the point that reaching people is not the same as teaching or educating people. There is evidence that basic education does reach individuals who want the opportunity but little evidence of the success of the educational/teaching experience. Another area lacking good data is that of teacher education. According to Raza, there are four ways that open and long distance education is used for teacher education: initial professional education, continuing professional development, curriculum reform, and teachers’ career development. Long distance education has been very successful in reaching this audience; however, again there is little evidence about the outcomes of its impact “except to indicate the perceived legitimacy of the method of provision” (p. 215). Other areas where only a very little or crude results exist about the effectiveness of open and long distance education are in examination results and in training teachers. Again, this is due to the lack of specific types of research studies being conducted. The third area Raza mentions is that of higher education. Graduate rates at the tertiary level are scarce, and the data that does exist are relatively old and compiled over a number of years and many courses and institutions. In this discussion on outputs, Raza provides a description of various studies around the world to help demonstrate the difficulty of the process in measuring outcomes. However, she also provides the examples of existing research to show that attempts are being made to determine how effective open and long distance education is and can be. She also makes two noteworthy observations. First of all, although the evidence of open and distance learning is sketchy, there is some evidence that the method of delivery can generate benefits for its target audience. Secondly, the more evidence that can be collected on the outcome/outputs of open and long distance learning, the better policy decisions can and will be made. Three conclusions can be drawn from these observations that will assist policy and decision makers: open and distance learning can be successful in reaching a range of students; evidence seems to exist that open and distance learning is more effective in some areas than in others; and in times of shrinking budgets, the efficiency of education is often at the cost of effectiveness. The key to learning more about the outputs in regard to students, labor force, employers, and society is through more research. The research agenda should include: “(1) encouraging and improving systems of data management and institutionalizing evaluation and research in open and distance learning institutions; (2) continuing to collect date on outcomes in such measures as enrolments and graduation rates; (3) carrying out systematic research into the value-added of these educational interventions, whether in terms of non-market or market implications as well as cognitive and behavioral changes generated by experience; and (4) to understand which particular variables contribute most to the effectiveness of these institutions” (p. 222). Cost effectiveness is always a consideration in an educational delivery system in both traditional and nontraditional settings; however, “Perhaps the best generalization that can be made about the methods of distance education in relation to cost-effectiveness is that they provide tools for designing and building high-quality systems for facilitating learning that are sensitive to the specific needs of students” (p. 244). This conclusion is drawn by Neil Butcher and Nicky Roberts, authors of Chapter 12 on costs, effectiveness, and efficiency. Some key concepts as discussed such as differentiating between effectiveness and efficiency, difference between actual costs and notional estimates, fixed and variable costs, direct and indirect costs, overhead costs, unit costs and cost centers, cost drivers, personnel costs, and capital costs. When thinking of the costs involved in long distance education, “it has become a dangerous piece of conventional wisdom that distance education is less expensive than traditional contact education” (p. 229). The purpose of Chapter 12 is to help the reader understand the many factors that must be considered in determining costs including those related to benefits, comparative studies, design time, and national needs and to suggest ways to avoid cost and income traps. What we do conclude from this chapter is that distance education has been able to fulfill its responsibilities and meet the needs of students because it has been able to demonstrate higher levels of cost efficiency and cost effectiveness than comparable conventional institutions. The reading of this book will help you to understand that open and distance education is becoming a significant factor in policy decisions and in the choice of countries, especially developing countries seeking to bring education to the people. Lentell, in Chapter 13, makes the following statement: “Open and distance learning holds out the promise of increasing accessibility to education and training and enabling the best use of limited educational resources” (p. 249). Central to the book and its message is the belief that through thoughtful and cost effective planning, there can be an expansion of educationally sound open and long distance education programs. If the purpose of open and long distance learning is to widen access to education, what needs to occur in this process of development and expansion is the addressing of some critical issues which are: identifying the target population and their needs; choosing the appropriate type of system; choosing the appropriate technology of delivery; business planning and costing of programs; developing and acquiring support materials; tutoring and supporting students; recruiting and enrolling students; assessing students; managing and administering open and long distance programs, and monitoring, evaluating, and providing quality assurance. Lentell provides a table outlining these issues and how they might be addressed. For anyone who reads this book, it is an eye-opening examination of distance learning on a global scale. It makes us aware of the problems, benefits, importance, and immensity of the educational challenge that exists in providing access via open and long distance learning to as many individuals as possible in order to improve and enhance standards of living, productivity, training of labor forces, political and economic stability, democratization of countries, and a general raising of the levels of knowledge. Knowledge is the key and the basis for all future growth, innovation, development, and improvement in the status of the world’s population.