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Swanson, J. L., & Fouad, N.A. (1999). Career Theory
and Practice: Learning Through Case Studies. CA: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
220 pp.
$80.95 ISBN 0-7619-1142-1
Reviewed by Kimberly Hendry
The Ohio State University
January 30, 2004
Utilizing an interactive approach, Swanson and Fouad have
developed a text to systematically engage the master's level
student or the inquiring practitioner in career theory and
practice. Collectively, they work diligently to effectively
bridge theory and practice. Five theoretical approaches and two
distinct practical approaches to career counseling are reviewed,
supplemented by the recurring case study of “Leslie”
in each chapter to serve as a working framework for
implementation of each respective theory and/or career counseling
approach. The extensive case study of Leslie is presented
initially in chapter one to provide us with career counseling
content information and assessment findings to most successfully
integrate the theoretical and career counseling approaches in
each subsequent chapter.
Following a conceptualization of Leslie's current situation
based on each chapter's theoretical or career counseling
approach, the text provides directions and implications for
career counseling at the conclusion of each chapter. This
section of each chapter is comprehensive, describing the goals of
counseling, appropriate interventions, discussion questions, and
additional cases provided for review. This is particularly
helpful as the reader can fully ingest each approach and
immediately receive feedback on the implementation of the theory
and approach into practice.
Chapter three begins the theoretical discussion of Holland's
Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments. This
theory is identified as a person-environment fit, in that people
influence their environments, and environments influence people
(Walsh, Price, & Craik, 1992). This theory is commonly used
in the practice of career development professionals. It is quite
popular to use Holland's first two working assumptions in
describing vocational choice. This popularity is enhanced
through the convenient application of Holland's six-category
typology, in which personality types and environments are
described as realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
enterprising, and conventional. Swanson and Fouad go on to
discuss Holland's third and fourth working assumptions, which
are, respectively, that "people search for environments that will
let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their
attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles"
(Holland, 1997, p. 4) and that personality and environment
interact to produce behavior. The text examines the case study
of Leslie in conjunction with Holland's theory, primarily
focusing on personality, environment, and other external factors
in describing the client's occupational choices.
“The Theory of Work Adjustment”, chapter four, has
also been identified as a theory of person-environment fit,
although the emphasis is placed on vocational adjustment.
Swanson and Fouad eloquently provide that the Theory of Work
Adjustment, similar to Holland's theory, uses the same dimensions
to describe people as are used to describe environments. The
Theory of Work Adjustment focuses on two sets of common
dimensions to evaluate occupational fit: an individual's ability
in relation to his/her job and an individual's needs and work
values in relation to the awards available on the job. A
counselor working from this theoretical approach needs to
thoroughly examine an individual's abilities, needs, and values
to assess congruency with those of his/her occupation. In the
case of Leslie this theory is quick to highlight her
dissatisfaction in administration and the change in her rewards.
Primarily, this theory works well in working with job adjustment
issues.
Theory focusing on the decision making process and the
incorporation of developmental tasks brings us to the discussion
of developmental theories. Chapter 5, “Developmental
Theories”, highlights Super's life span approach and
Gottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise. In
addition to Super's theory of decision-making, self-concept, and
vocational choices, Super's five distinct life stages are
reviewed. Gottfredson's theory examines the variance of
vocational expectations based on sex, race, and social class.
According to Swanson and Fouad, "Gottfredson differs from Super
in that she views vocational choice first as an implementation of
the social self and only secondarily as an implementation of the
psychological self"(p. 86). As each theorist applies his/her
developmental theory to the case of Leslie, decision making and
developmental stages across the life span are of critical
importance in determining a working hypothesis and implications
for career counseling.
Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Choice and
Counseling is focused on interacting with the environment in
making career decisions, with the emphasis on the learning
resulting from those interactions. The text describes the
Learning Theory as employing two types of learning: instrumental
and associative. Outlined are four factors influencing the
career paths of individuals: innate genetic endowment and special
abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning
experiences, and task approach skills. Chapter 6 provides that
these four factors interact and result in the formation of
generalizations about self and world. It is only then that
individuals identify interests, skills, work values, etc. Career
decision-making is affected as one begins to internalize
interests, skills, and work values, and, as a result, initiates
career decisions. According to Swanson and Fouad, in
conceptualizing Leslie's case, social learning career theorists
would "examine her innate abilities, learning experiences, task
approach skills combined with environmental events to influence
her decision making and choices" (106).
Comparatively speaking, “Social Cognitive Career
Theory”, Chapter 7, is new to the field of career
development. Self-efficacy and career choice is described in the
chapter as first being acknowledged by Hackett and Betz. This
theory recognizes self-efficacy to be of critical importance in
career decisions and choices. A social cognitive framework
developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) is used to explain
and predict career behavior in a three-part model linking
interests, choices, and performance (126). A specific overview
of the framework is provided throughout the remainder of the
theoretical description with complete figure analysis.
Demographic variables and background and contextual variables are
noted in the chapter as affecting self-efficacy expectations and
career interests, respectively. Swanson and Fouad provide
comprehensive examples to illustrate the tenets of social
cognitive career theory. In reviewing the case of Leslie, social
cognitive theorists would focus on Leslie's learning experiences,
her self-efficacy beliefs, and her outcome expectations.
Chapters 8 and 9 bring specific career counseling approaches
to our attention. These two chapters embrace gender-aware and
feminist approaches and culturally appropriate approaches to
career counseling. Swanson and Fouad attempt to heighten
awareness through interactive descriptions from an extensive
literature review. Three counseling orientations are reviewed
that take gender into account: nonsexist counseling, gender-aware
counseling, and feminist counseling. Assessment is reviewed as
well as noting four major sex biases in testing. Swanson and
Fouad provide an extensive basis on which to evaluate
Leslie’s case from a gender aware and feminist approach.
According to Swanson and Fouad, Leslie received mixed messages
about careers for women, lack of interest with regard to career
choice as pressure mounted to maintain strong familial
commitments, and gender isolation in advanced math courses.
In chapter 9, the emphasis is on acknowledging race and
ethnicity in a career counseling approach. The text reiterates
the responsibility of counselors to become multiculturally
competent professionals. Swanson and Fouad substantiate this
assertion on a variety of occasions with statements such as,
"Clients are shaped in part by factors such as their gender,
racial identity and background, sexual orientation, socioeconomic
status, or disability, all of which help to form their
environments and their responses to it"(p. 172). The chapter
describes three models to assist the student and/or practitioner
in conceptualizing ways to incorporate culture into career
counseling. Figures are included to enhance a more comprehensive
understanding of each model. Five central tenets of career
counseling are outlined to enhance an awareness of the importance
of multicultural perspective in practice. In reviewing the case
of Leslie, practitioners working from a culturally appropriate
career counseling approach examine Leslie’s behavior and
values from multiple cultural contexts(184). Ultimately, this
would provide them with a framework to assess and deliver
culturally appropriate interventions.
Career Theory and Practice: Learning Through Case
Studies serves as an excellent text to bring theory into
practice. It allows for the examination of specific theoretical
approaches, yet reminds students and practitioners of the
eclectic use of theory in practice. Chapter 10, “Summary
and Integration”, provides the reader with a summarization
of all the theories discussed in chapters 3-7. It integrates all
the theoretical approaches and career counseling approaches as
the chapter discusses individual contributions in discussing the
case of Leslie. Further, it provides two additional cases for
the student and/or practitioner to review and on which to apply
theoretical and career counseling approaches. Certainly, the
text enhances learning through this use of interactive case
conceptualization exercises.
However, some limitations are to be considered by the reader.
Extensive theoretical knowledge is not provided, although a
practical amount is provided for a useful understanding. Some
knowledge of assessment is assumed. As a result, an awareness of
career assessment is significant for a comprehensive
understanding of the text, especially in conceptualizing cases.
Additionally, limited discussion on career clients with
disabilities may foster a lack of knowledge of this special
population. In light of this information, supplemental materials
on theoretical approaches, assessment, and disabled clients may
be appropriate, depending on student and/or practitioner
knowledge.
Overall, though, the text is an outstanding contribution to
the field of career development. It provides an interactive
approach to learning and conceptualizing career development
theories and career counseling approaches. The text encourages
practitioners and students to examine theory and incorporate
theory into practice, a luxury not often afforded in a classroom
setting. Swanson and Fouad have developed a text that remains
useful, both in the classroom and as a tool for career
development practitioners.
About the Reviewer
Kimberly Hendry is a doctoral student in Counselor Education
with a school counseling focus at The Ohio State University. Her
research interests include: services provided for students in
urban school districts, allocation of educational funding and
resources, and career exploration and assessment opportunities
with students from a variety of social classes. Ms. Hendry can
be reached via e-mail at hendry.3@osu.edu.
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