Carnoy, Martin; Jacobsen, Rebecca; Mishel, Lawrence & Rothstein, Richard. (2005). The Charter School Dust-Up: Examining the Evidence on Enrollment and Achievement. Reviewed by Larisa Warhol, Arizona State University

Carnoy, Martin; Jacobsen, Rebecca; Mishel, Lawrence & Rothstein, Richard. (2005). The Charter School Dust-Up: Examining the Evidence on Enrollment and Achievement. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute and New York, NY: Teachers College Press. 186pp. $19.95   ISBN 0-8077-4615-0 Reviewed by Larisa Warhol Arizona State University January 16, 2006 The controversy over the effectiveness of charter schools reached a boiling point in August, 2004, when the New York Times published a front page article claiming that student achievement in public schools was in fact higher than achievement in charter schools. This article was based on a publication of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), a supporter of charter school reform, that analyzed unreleased data from the federal government’s National Assessment of Educational Progress. Response was immediate from charter school advocates who placed a full-page ad in the Times claiming that the AFT had employed flawed methods of analysis and was biased against charter schools. The Charter School Dust-Up: Examining the Evidence on Enrollment and Achievement comes out of this debate to contribute its own evaluation of charter school student achievement and enrollments. Providing a systematic review of the debate, Martin Carnoy, Rebecca Jacobsen, Lawrence Mishel, and Richard Rothstein seek to establish an unbiased view of charter schools by examining all available evidence for comparing public and charter school achievement and enrollment. They use data based on nineteen studies that were conducted in eleven states and the District of Columbia. They also examine findings put forth by the AFT, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), and charter school advocates. Their findings reveal that charter school students do not outperform public school students; and in fact, the impact of charter schools on student achievement is negative. Beyond the data regarding student achievement, the authors also address potential policy implications and discuss commonly advanced rationales for supporting charter schools. However, they caution that the purpose of their book is not to provide an in-depth analysis of reasons for supporting charter schools or attendant policy issues. Rather the book focuses on the controversy surrounding the AFT report and its subsequent publication in the Times. Their analysis seeks to demonstrate that, based on current data, it should not be surprising that charter school student achievement is below that of public schools and that any further debate over charter school policy should proceed from this point. The authors first provide a detailed account of the reaction to the AFT report, the problems with the report, but also the problems with the critique of the report. They pay close attention to the issues that sparked the controversy. Charter school supporters cited conflict of interest on the part of the AFT and flaws in the methods of their reports (i.e., single point-in-time testing and insufficient student background information). The supporters also claim that many charter schools attract more disadvantaged students than traditional public schools, which would account for the low test scores. The authors confirm that the AFT report did have flaws. Yet they also note the hypocrisy of charter school advocates since the latter often put forth the same rationale that was used in the ATF report but in support of charter schools. For example, charter school advocates maintain that charter schools should initially be exempt from standardized testing until they have been able to stabilize their school curriculum and student body. Yet charter school advocates are unwilling to make the same concessions to public schools which might be adopting a new instructional program or have a new principal (p. 23). The authors also point out that charter school advocates have been inconsistent in their views of school assessment. Single point-in-time testing was criticized in the charter school advocates’ advertisement in the New York Times, yet the Charter School Leadership Council initially called for NAEP scores to be collected and analyzed. Only after the test results did not reveal higher student achievement in charter schools was this assessment method considered flawed by charter school advocates (p. 27). Discussion of the controversy also includes evaluation of assessment standards and No Child Left Behind (NCLB). While the authors claim not to be discussing policy issues, they do provide a critique of current NCLB standards and comment on the limitations of standardize testing as the only means of measuring student achievement. Having set the background of the controversy surrounding the New York Times article and ATF report of 2004, the authors systematically go through all available reports and data gathered on both the national and state level dealing with charter school and public school enrollment and achievement. The bulk of the book is dedicated to this evaluation of the data and reports from these various states. This analysis of the data available on both charter and public schools reveals the comprehensive examination that the authors give to support their findings. They also scrutinize specific examples cited by charter school advocates and reports that support the charter school movement. One argument on the side of charter school advocates against the AFT report was that charter schools serve a high proportion of disadvantaged students, thus resulting in the lower test scores. Examining data from each of the various states, the authors could find no evidence to support this claim. They provide the specific example of the KIPP network of charter schools, which has been held up as an extremely effective model for disadvantaged youth. Using both available published data on KIPP enrollment and test scores as well as teacher interviews, the authors could find no evidence that KIPP actively recruits a more disadvantaged student body nor that it has lower test scores as a result of serving disadvantages students (p. 65). The claim by charter school advocates that charter schools served a more disadvantaged population was not supported by available data. Next, examining both the AFT report and the later NCES report on charter schools, the authors found little variation in the analysis of test scores, thus undermining the charter school advocates claim that the AFT report misused the NAEP data. The authors next go through state-level studies conducted on charter school student achievement. Some studies provided data on charter schools that had been operating for over three years, the interval of time that the charter school advocates claim is required for school stability. These data revealed that these students were also under-performing. The authors focus on the Hoxby report. Caroline Hoxby, Allie S. Freed Professor of Economics at Harvard, is a charter schools advocate, and her reports were published after the New York Times article. Many charter school advocates claimed her study was more valid because it had a larger sample, and it also showed that charter schools do have high student achievement (p.98). The authors provide a close analysis of Hoxby’s report that reveals some serious flaws. She violated the evaluation standards that the New York Times charter school advocates had put forth. She also had weaker performance measurements than the NEAP data and used a single point-in-time analysis. Her study also contradicted findings from earlier state studies. Based on their findings from these various reports, the authors’ overall analysis reveals that charter school students are consistently achieving less than public school students. The authors conclude by describing important lessons learned from the debate over charter schools prompted by the 2004 AFT report. They caution that accurate school and student assessments cannot be made using current standardize testing methods. More precise student characteristics need to be taken into account and year-to-year analysis should be done on the same group of students. They maintain that any initial claims made that charter schools will result in higher student achievement have proven groundless. Also, lower student achievement is not based on charter schools having enrolled more disadvantaged children. Charter schools instead do show increased segregation and greater student mobility. The authors acknowledge that some charter schools do produce higher student performance, but they question whether the benefit of maintaining these few schools with current charter school policy is worth the harm caused by the system as a whole. This book is put forth by the authors as an unbiased view of charter schools and as an evaluation of their student achievement and enrollment by the Economic Policy Institute in the wake of the controversy over the 2004 AFT report. Controversy over the validity of charter schools has been widespread since their inception. (Bracey, 2005). The Charter School Dust-Up: Examining the Evidence on Enrollment and Achievement contributes a valuable and clear analysis of current charter school performance. The authors succeed in providing comprehensive evidence to support their final conclusion that charter schools on the whole have been ineffective. They also provide important commentary on current assessment policy and measures although they claim that is not their goal. While the authors claim to maintain an unbiased view of charter schools, the books reads like a critique of charter school advocates and their positions. In the Introduction, the authors explain they will repeatedly be using the term “zealots” to refer to charter school advocates, particularly those who maintain the superiority of charter schools regardless of credible data to the contrary. They claim to use this term to distinguish those who rushed to support charter schools in the wake of AFT report versus those who did not. Regardless of their explanation, when reading the book, the excessive use of the term “zealots” for these charter school advocates influences how the reader perceives charter school supporters and implies a negative opinion of them. Although the authors claim to see some merit in charter schools, they appear critical of the charter school movement in general and the inconsistent opinions and reports of charter school advocates. References Bracey, G. (2005). Charter Schools' Performance and Accountability: A Disconnect. Tempe, AZ: Education Policy Studies Laboratory, Arizona State University. Retrieved January 16, 2006, from http://www.asu.edu/educ/epsl/EPRU/documents/EPSL-0505-113-EPRU.pdf About the Reviewer Larisa Warhol is a PhD student in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies program at Arizona State University. She formerly worked as an education consultant with many charter schools in the Philadelphia, PA area. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Allen, Matthew. (2004). Smart thinking: skills for critical understanding and writing. Reviewed by Jill L. Woolums, University of California, Berkeley

Allen, Matthew. (2004). Smart thinking: skills for critical understanding and writing. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Pp. xi + 193 $19.95   ISBN 0-19-551733- 4 Reviewed by Jill L. Woolums University of California, Berkeley January 23, 2006 Written for the student or teacher of critical thinking Smart Thinking is a guidebook or textbook on the structure and practical use of critical thinking. It also serves as a reference book by providing a glossary of key terms and concepts, by providing a bibliography of books and sources on knowledge, reasoning, writing and communicating, and by outlining important critical thinking skills. As a librarian and instructor of Internet research skills, I found it also valuable for teachers and students of information literacy. A knowledgeable academic, author Matthew Allen is a university instructor of critical thinking. He coordinates the Internet Studies Program and is the Association Dean of Teaching and Learning and Humanities at Australia’s Curtin University of Technology. Allen writes in a clear, straightforward, interactive style suitable for a Web-savvy audience. As he states in the Preface, Allen writes with a bias that expresses greater interest in the communication and contextual issues involved in learning and applying critical thinking skills, which he believes are as or more important than abstract, logical reasoning skills. The book focuses on developing one’s own reasoning ability rather than relying on others’ arguments. The Second Edition goes beyond the First Edition by expanding on more complicated reasoning and research skills and by providing more models and examples. The book builds sequentially chapter by chapter, providing narrative, lecture-like sections, explanations and exercises. Chapters are well-organized, providing an introduction to key concepts, explanations, concrete examples, diagrams when appropriate (as in the chapter on casting), and several types of interactive exercises for students to test their learning and apply concepts to individual issues. Exercises are found at the end of each chapter. Some exercises stimulate smart thinking by asking readers to apply the concepts of the chapter to key issues in their lives. For these questions, there are neither right nor wrong answers. Answers instead reflect smart thinking skills, incorporating the need to ask smart questions. Other exercises require analytical problem-solving, reading comprehension and synthesis of concepts in the planning of an essay or report. Particularly helpful are the concept checks at the end of the chapters. The book is organized, as one would hope, logically. Chapter One defines smart thinking, explains how to study smart thinking, and tells why we need to think smart. Chapters Two through Four breakdown the elements of reasoning: claims, links, dependent premises. Chapters Five and Six demonstrate how to evaluate well-formed and well-founded claims and how to determine the quality of reasoning according to relevance, use of premises, strength of support and authority. Chapter Seven distinguishes deductive and inductive reasoning, categorical and propositional logic and explains causal reasoning, reasoning from generalization, reasoning from specific cases, reasoning from analogy, and reasoning from terms. Chapter Eight, one of the best in the book, applies smart thinking to the research process and information seeking. The final two chapters demonstrate how to use all of the skills outlined and explained in the previous chapters to plan and create the analytical structure for a report. The appendices provide some of the most useful and practical information in the book. The Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts provides a ready reference of definitions for clarification. The annotated bibliography found in Further Reading enables readers to pursue the author’s perspective on critical thinking and to find other guidebooks for skill development in both reasoning and writing. A primary weakness of the book is linked to one of its strengths. While it purports to be a guide for students, the book is somewhat cumbersome in its structure and neglects to clearly connect some of the skills described with the ways they can be directly useful to students. Finally, at the end of the book, Allen attaches a four page Guide to Important Skills. The general and specific questions asked, such as “What do I need to do to be convincing in my reports, essays, and presentations?” would have had significantly greater impact and aroused more interest in explanations, had they been woven into the chapters that provide the answers. The questions in Guide to Important Skills are clear and relevant to students’ real academic needs. They are in fact a primary motive for reading the book. Therefore, had they been better integrated into the text, they may have made it more readable and user-friendly. In particular, had they been emphasized in the introductions to each relevant chapter and reflected in the reviews, they would have helped the author achieve his intent of linking the study of critical thinking to communication and contextual issues. They would thereby provide an incentive to persevere through the exercises in analytical logic. The Guide to Important Skills, while an excellent addition to the book, needs further expansion. Similarly, the final two chapters on how to use all the skills Allen outlines in the creation of a new report could have been further developed to make this a better textbook not only for developing comprehension through critical thinking, but also for developing superior writing skills. Nevertheless, these final chapters are an excellent beginning to understanding what goes into a carefully thought out and planned research paper. The author does provide references for further reading on the subject of writing in the Further Reading appendix. One piece of back matter missing from the book is an index. While the table of contents and chapter outline is very clear, an index would be especially helpful, especially if the book is to be used as a textbook for a critical thinking or information literacy class. An index is an important study tool. Smart Thinking, in Chapter One, does briefly address the “Why” of critical thinking, or the motivation for learning these skills. Allen acknowledges that for students, smart thinking helps one study. For adults in general, smart thinking helps us perform well at work, makes us better decision-makers, and makes us active community members. However, these statements are general and need greater specificity. The Guide to Important Skills is a quick brushstroke to achieve a little specificity and functions more as an afterthought. Smart Thinking does provide noteworthy substance on the nature of critical thinking. Allen explains in depth what he considers to be the four key elements of smart thinking; i.e., (1) considering issues in depth and with breadth; (2) critically assessing information, without taking anything for granted or making easy assumptions about the truth of claims or the interrelationships of claims; (3) relating texts to the contexts within which they are produced, presented or used; and (4) seeing that knowledge and reasoning are two perspectives of one concept: that ideas and objects are understood in relation to other ideas and objects. Allen says “Smart thinking is about reasoning, which is about the use and communication of knowledge….once you understand that knowledge consists of innumerable interrelations between small bits of information then you will be able to find, shape, and use knowledge for yourself….It is always a social act…. The connections and relations between ideas, events, proposals and so on only become meaningful in the context of how, when, where, and why they are communicated with others.” (p. 5) Allen teaches that the key skill needed to be an effective and thoughtful thinker who is able to engage with and understand the world is not an ability to find the answers. It is the ability to ask the right questions. This premise weaves throughout the book, both in its design and its content. As a research librarian and college instructor, I particularly appreciated Chapter Eight, where Allen applies his ideas about research, reasoning and analysis to the finding of information. He describes the finding of information as a reasoning process, stressing that information and information sources are understood by where we find them, how they relate to other information, how they are classified, and how they are to be used. Information extracted from a source must be critically and appropriately used within a new document. These skills are increasingly important in developing the information literacy and Internet research abilities necessary for performing research in a digital environment. In the print and library environment, the presence of editors and knowledgeable selectors has meant that information found could more likely be relied upon for credibility. In the Internet environment where anything can be published by anyone with or without credentials, critical evaluation is a task the user must perform for him/herself with little help from experts. The ability to ask appropriate questions about the who, what, where, when, and why of the information context, and the ability to recognize claims, arguments, explanations, assumptions, and values are critical thinking skills demanded of the information literate researcher as well as writer. ACRL (American College & Research Libraries) has set forth five information literacy competency standards for higher education. These standards specify the performance indicators and achievement outcomes necessary to be a skilled, information literate researcher in the digital age. Allen’s Smart Thinking supports all of these standards. His text is therefore particularly useful as a reference or guidebook for information literacy instructors who are constructing curriculum materials to teach students how to evaluate and critique information sources. The ACRL standards are as follows: Standard One. The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the information needed. This includes (1) defining and articulating the need for information; (2) identifying a variety of types and formats of potential sources; (3) considers the costs and benefits of acquiring information; (4) reevaluates the nature and extent of the information need. Allen adds an insight relevant to Standard One. “Critical academic work about any topic is designed, first and foremost, to discover the right questions to ask; the answers come later, once those questions have been determined….Thinking first about questions is much smarter than trying to think first about answers.” (p. 104) Allen explains that the information need to which ACRL refers is essentially the need to ask smart questions. To ask smart questions is to engage in the process of reasoning and to understand the links between claims. Questions help the researcher to clarify and focus in on particular aspects of a topic and to establish parameters for analysis. Allen elaborates that this process determines “what we do consider and what we do not consider; what broadly defined bodies of knowledge we will and will not call upon; what definitions of terms we will use within our reasoning; and what methods of investigation we will use.” (p.105). Defining a topic is a process of refining our focus that, in turn, provides a level of precision that enables one to efficiently and effectively search. Standard Two. The information literate student accesses needed information effectively and efficiently. This includes (1) selecting the most appropriate investigative methods of information retrieval systems for accessing the needed information; (2) constructs and implements effectively-designed search strategies; (3) retrieves information online or in person using a variety of methods; (4) refines the search strategy as necessary; (5) extracts, records, and manages the information and its sources. Allen offers smart thinking tips to enhance the development of a search strategy. He stresses that information is often understood by where we find it and by how it is organized. Information is organized into monographs, periodicals, web sites, email lists, reference books, etc. These formats organize knowledge and make it accessible. The researcher needs to recognize that these formats do not make the information “analytical, sensible or useable” (p. 106). They do, however, imply that certain critical judgments have been made about the value and reliability of the information found there. For example, peer-reviewed journals are weighted more heavily than popular magazines. Researchers must also distinguish between direct or primary sources and indirect or secondary sources. Allen comments: “Sometimes we will want to make claims in our reasoning that convey information in the claims themselves. And sometimes we will want to make claims about the fact that a certain type of claim, or group of claims, has been made by others. Developing the latter type of writing is essential in good critical work and , thus, requires you to develop skills in knowing about sources of knowledge.” (p.115). Standard Three. The information literate student evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his/her knowledge base and value system. This includes: (1) summarizing the main ideas to be extracted from the information gathered; (2) articulates and applies initial criteria for evaluating both the information and its sources; (3) synthesizes main ideas to construct new concepts; (4) compares new knowledge with prior knowledge to determine the value added, contradictions, or other unique characteristics of the information; (5) determines whether the new knowledge has an impact on the individual’s value system and takes steps to reconcile differences; (6) validates understanding and interpretation through discourse with others, including subject-experts and/or practitioners; (7) determines whether the initial query should be revised. Allen’s ­Smart Thinking is especially valuable in developing the evaluative skills required by Standard Three. In chapters Two through Seven, he describes in detail how to understand language, how to see claims and the links between claims in written communication, how to assess the analytical structure of reasoning through the use of casting, how to recognize dependent premises, and how to rank claims and the links between claims in terms of effectiveness, relevance, and authority. He distinguishes deductive from inductive reasoning, and categorical from propositional logic. He considers types of arguments containing elements of reasoning from causes, specific cases, terms, generalizations, and analogies. All of these skills sharpen the information literate student’s skills in critical evaluation of information in all formats and containing any kind of content. Chapters Two through Seven are useful in the instruction of critical thinking in the context of information retrieval from online, or for that matter any, sources. Standard Four. The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose. This includes: (1) applying new and prior information to the planning and creation of a particular product or performance; (2) revising the development process for the product or performance; (3) communicating the product or performance effectively to others. Chapters Nine and Ten of Smart Thinking address synthesizing information into a planned report. Allen focuses primarily on the initial planning of a written document, with emphasis on the key analytical questions to ask before developing a structure for a narrative. He suggests that the same skills used to analyze and critically assess the works of others may be employed successfully when applied to outlining a written piece that incorporates understanding gained from such analyses and assessments. Allen offers: “The key advantage of the analytical structure format is that it lays out, in advance of writing or presentation, the structure of key claims and the links between them in a way that is driven by the analysis--the reasoning--rather than by the way we will present the argument or explanation.” (p.132). Smart Thinking provides techniques and exercises to enable a student achieve ACRL’s Standard Four. Standard Five. The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information ethically and legally. This includes: (1) understanding many of the ethical, legal and socio-economic issues surrounding information and information technology; (2) following laws, regulations, institutional policies, and etiquette related to the access and use of information; (3) acknowledging the use of information (via citation) in communicating the product or performance. Smart Thinking is a manual for learning how to critically assess information within its context. The techniques and exercises throughout the book aim at developing skills to enable students to extrapolate and evaluate information and knowledge in the works of others and to incorporate and create information and knowledge in their own work. Allen clarifies how one’s critical assessment of others’ works and incorporating citations to those works, strengthens one’s research contribution. Plagiarism or other illegal ways of misusing information are entirely contrary to his thesis. If Allen’s work is to be seriously considered and believed, it provides a rationale and an incentive for eliminating both negligence in thinking and temptation to commit illegal acts with respect to the misuse of information and knowledge. In Chapter Ten, to further emphasize this point, Allen provides for review a sample text, appropriately entitled, “The Value of Referencing”. The text demonstrates and explains how citation strengthens the credibility a written document. Allen has done a commendable job of updating the definition of what should be considered critical thinking, especially within a digital environment. He takes the process beyond abstract logical thinking to reasoning as applied to the whole environment of communication, knowledge and information seeking. Smart Thinking is useful as a reference book as well as a text for the instruction of critical thinking in information age. Smart Thinking is particularly valuable for librarians and instructors charged with the task of teaching information literacy skills to college students. About the Reviewer Jill L. Woolums, M.L.I.S, is a librarian at the Education Psychology Library, University of California, Berkeley and an instructor of Internet research at Ohlone College. She has taught college level research and writing classes, has authored articles, and possesses a master’s degree in English from Mills College. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Luhanga, Matthew L.; Makunde, Daniel J.; Mbwette, Tolly S.A.; Chijoriga, Marcellina M.; and Ngirwa, Cleophace A. (2003). Higher Education Reforms in Africa: The University of Dar es Salaam Experience. Reviewed by Mitiku Adisu

Luhanga, Matthew L.; Makunde, Daniel J.; Mbwette, Tolly S.A.; Chijoriga, Marcellina M.; and Ngirwa, Cleophace A. (2003). Higher Education Reforms in Africa: The University of Dar es Salaam Experience. Dar es Salaam University Press. Pp. xv + 203 including Annexes and Bibliography (Paper) ISBN 9976-60-394-0 Reviewed by Mitiku Adisu January 23, 2006 Literature on African higher education is not only dismally inadequate but also disproportionately produced by non-Africans. Any output by African scholars should therefore be greeted with great rejoicing. The authors of the book under review, which includes one female, serve the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) in various capacities as Vice Chancellor, Dean, Academic Officer, and Department Head, and also lecture in Science and Technology, Human Resources and Finance, Linguistics and Environmental Engineering. Transdisciplinarity seems to be the strength of the book. The material is compiled primarily to share reform experiences of the UDSM (p. xvii-xviii). The book has seven chapters. Chapter 1 sets African higher education in its ‘pre-colonial, pre-independence, and post-independence’ milieu. Though ‘higher education’ flourished in parts of Africa for millennia, its European version arrived on the continent only recently with colonialism. Despite setbacks due mainly to funding, policy, and curricular irregularities, the institution of higher education in Africa remains a major force for public good; a new crop of dynamic leaders such as the present authors bear testimony to this. Another fact, often overlooked, is that African universities grew thirty-fold from a mere six in less than fifty years (pp.2-4). Chapter 2 (1961-1984) narrates the transformation, in less than a decade, of the UDSM from a college of the University of London and later the University of East Africa to an independent national university. That is quite an achievement, all things considered. On the other hand, attention to lower education in general would have provided a fuller picture to the narrative. Colonial education restricted natives from advancing into upper levels; access was, heretofore, according to region, religion, and gender. At independence, the public school system was unified and a policy of ‘liberating education’ took center stage. In an effort to produce self-reliant education, KiSwahili was chosen as the medium of instruction; curriculum was designed to reflect Tanzanian realities and primary education universalized. Chapter 3 (1985-1990) attempts to cover the looming crises brought about by institutional inefficiency, resource constraints, and the changing times. It is interesting that the idea of intervention coincided with Nyerere’s voluntary retirement as president in 1985. Chapter 4 (1990-1995) lays down the acculturation and implementation process and the shape of things to come. Chapters 5 & 6 discuss a phase-by-phase institutionalization of a transformation program (ITP) and the development of a reform model (UDSM ITP Model) and its relative successes. The final chapter recounts the highlights of those experiences. The layout of the book and issues tackled therein are very well thought out. The annexes are useful; the bibliography makes good use of material by African scholars. An index page could only have increased the book’s utility. In the shadows of the Mwalimu It is nearly impossible to understand the history of modern education in Tanzania apart from the role played by Mwalimu Nyerere (1922-1999) whose “eloquence, integrity, and intellectual brilliance” (p.47) continues to provide the spark for public policy debates. Indeed, a leader who is “a true philosopher, president and original thinker” is a rarity in Africa (Mazrui, 2003, pp.136-137). It is not stretching the point, therefore, that in almost every case (political) leadership played a make-or-break role in education reforms; this is despite the fact that economic hardship racked Nyerere’s tenure. On the other hand, his towering presence made UDSM of the 1960s and the 1970s a hub for international scholars (p.48). Such a list would include the Brazilian Paulo Freire (“Pedagogy of the Oppressed”); the Guyanese Walter Rodney (“How Europe Underdeveloped Africa”); the American Robert Moses (“The Algebra Project”, “Radical Equations”) and the Argentine revolutionist, Che Guevara. These were all of the radical left persuasion and in the current East-West ideological rivalry, offered their intellectual acumen in the service of liberation from colonial and neo-colonial injustices. It is also worth remembering that Nyerere was a deeply religious person for whom humanizing social policy meant forging an African brand of socialism (i.e., “Freedom and Socialism”)—in distinction from the merely individualistic, collectivist and atheistic model. At a time when the major rivals in Africa were the Chinese and the Soviets and his ideological stance was frowned on by both the West and the East, Nyerere, nonetheless, managed to tread a fine geo-political line to shape a unique national identity. How will the current “free” market reforms at the UDSM enrich or equitably reflect the culture of Tanzanians without succumbing to external pressure? The enduring dilemma Generating revenue remains the enduring dilemma of African higher education: the state is always cash strapped or is sidetracked by other priorities; office holders often collude with corrupt multinational groups; external donors lack long-term commitment or impose conditions that may not comprehend local realities. In all cases, access, autonomy, quality of education and human capital are compromised and/or squandered. The authors grapple with serious and present issues, among which are that African universities pursued “the ever-changing Western liberal concepts” and “failed to adapt to African environment” (pp.3-4). This has been a recurring theme in almost every “externally-initiated, commissioned, and supported” reform (Samoff, et al 1996). Following this setup the question is then raised as to “what the future holds for African universities” (p.18). The answer comes as unequivocal “no choice except to develop sufficient ICT (Information and Communication Technology)” (ibid). However, this in turn raises a fundamental problem in the nature of technology itself, in language as an agent of social cohesion and cultural identity formation. What are the socio-cultural ramifications for Tanzania that English, not KiSwahili, is used in ICT delivery system? What are the limits of ICT and prospects for local control and ownership? How will reliance on ICT inhibit or facilitate community learning? Moreover, the lead author is a trained telecommunications engineer and a Chancellor at the UDSM (p.156). How did the fact that the same person is also on the board of a leading international “satellite service provider of voice, data and internet solutions” (INTELSAT) facilitate or impede input from members of the reform team? Will ICT bring about a digital divide that hark back to regional, gender, religious, and class disparities of the colonial era? How should the tension between cooperation (community) and competition (individualism) be managed? Will the need to expand access mean regulating private education? The challenges are indeed immense but they are not restricted to Tanzania alone. It is true that issues do not always fall in neat categories and that often decisions are made before all the data are in. On the other hand, evidence points to the fact that indiscriminate adoption of a reform agenda could result in alienating the same population it is intended to benefit. In light of this, one wonders if “self-initiated and self-driven” reform programs are indeed sustainable in a world of financial uncertainties and incompatible priorities (p. xvii). How will partnering with Ford, Carnegie, MacArthur, and Rockefeller foundations affect direction of research, grant allocation, hiring, inter-university relations, autonomy and camaraderie of faculty? I believe the authors are well aware that the reforms are just beginning. The next challenge may require sustaining the momentum as well as developing a new leadership that will extend and promote Tanzanian ideals and hopes in the coming decades. Education for self-reliance (ESR), as a policy frame of reference, sought to develop “an enquiring mind; an ability to learn from what others do, and reject or adapt it to his own needs; and a basic confidence in his own position as a free and equal member of the society, who values others and is valued by them for what he does and not for what he obtains” (Nyerere, 1968, p.274; Italics mine). What must happen now to ensure that past successes are not undermined in the pursuit for efficiency? The authors convincingly argue that increasing stakeholder role of the local (business) community is indispensable, as is cost-sharing and making research and curricula relevant. It is hoped that such measures will enable students to be creators and not simply consumers of knowledge, especially in the area of employment. This is perhaps easier said than done. But the fact remains that nurturing such an environment is in and of itself commendable. In other words, the development of the private sector to generate revenue is incumbent upon time, extensity and speed of development, commitment and transparency at all levels and luck that natural and socio-economic forces do not conspire to disrupt the process. Cost-sharing has been a contentious and infeasible issue in most of Africa (Ishengoma, 2004). If the past is any guide, local ownership of content and research also may not be sustainable as long as somebody else is paying for them. The USDM Model The authors offer before the gods of reform an “unorthodox” UDSM ITP model (Chapter 6). First, it is claimed that, unlike conventional organizational strategies, reform at the UDSM was launched without prior plan, plea or budget. This, the authors would argue, gave them the flexibility to adapt to a constantly changing environment. In short, the model is said to be “self-initiated and self-driven”. Despite the rhetoric, there is nothing new about these claims. For example, power struggle and resistance to changes is a given in situations like this; changes presuppose uncertainties; getting opposing factions on board is as much a function of packaging the arguments as ensuring one’s job security. The model is, in short, illustrative of a good business plan and the demands of restructuring organizations in a transitional low-income country context. In fact, the emphasis on uniqueness of the model often betrayed an urge on the part of the authors to insert autobiographical snippets (pp, 150, 155-6, 63-64). This raises the question of whether or not assessing a reform project by participants is the best way to gauge its veracity. The uniqueness of the UDSM model is rather due to the fact that the processes and personalities involved are unique to the historical moment, culture, and Tanzanian demographic landscape. This statement applies to every polity. Again, there is nothing novel about the present report. By the same token, the idea of replicating the model should be scrutinized with the same rigor as externally-funded prescriptions. In other words, Africans are as different from one another as they appear to be similar. Conclusion Nevertheless, one observes a line-up of positive qualities in the UDSM experience. First, the current leadership is highly qualified and committed to have undertaken the reform agenda. Second, the working relationship with the political leadership is good; not many African universities can make such a statement. (Some may disagree, quite understandably, that close political relations and appointments compromise autonomy). Third, academic priorities were shaped in consideration of pressing social issues (in this case, HIV/AIDS). Fourth, research relevance and output was linked to tenure and pay structure. Consultancy opportunities to faculty, in addition, positively impacted out migration and morale. Fifth, the leadership collaborated, not competed, with private educational institutions in the effort to expand enrollment they alone could not provide at the tertiary level. Sixth, increasing business sector participation and growing university-community relations helped to integrate learning with long-term implications. Seventh, the ‘UDSM experience’ is a testament to what a committed, articulate, and market savvy leadership could do to exercise relative control over a vision and its realization. The real issue is, in the end, if current achievements and the nearly fifty percent annual donor budgetary support could be sustained without compromising core ideals; if past successes complement future goals; if focus on “free” market education led to the neglect of one’s cultural history; if the local economy could grow fast enough to absorb future shocks; and if external funding will allow academic research and curricular autonomy. Or even more pressing is that the post-independence unified education system could break down to relegate a large portion of the population to pre-colonial conditions. What is the contingency plan in the event that funding commitments are abandoned mid-river or if, as in the past, higher education for Africans is deemed a luxury? Such are the environments with which African education reformers must contend. Hopefully, the experience of the UDSM will once again attract attention and generate lively debates. References Brock-Utne, Birgit. (1995). The Role of Higher Education in Africa. Paper presented at the Nordic Association for the Study of Education in Developing Countries. Conference held at the Agricultural University of Norway at As. Ishengoma, Johnson. (2004). Cost sharing in Higher Education in Tanzania: Fact or Fiction? Journal of Higher Education in Africa. Johnstone, D. Bruce, Arora, A. & Experton, W. (1998). The Financing and Management of Higher Education: A Status Report on World Wide Reforms. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Levidow, Les. (2001). Marketizing Higher Education: Neoliberal Strategies and Counter-Strategies. Cultural Logic, 4(1). Mazrui, Ali A. (2003). Towards Re-Africanizing African Universities:Who Killed Intellectualism in the Post Colonial Era? Turkish Journal of International Relations, 2(3 & 4), 135-163 Nyerere, Julius K. (1968). Freedom and Socialism. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press. UNESCO/GTASE. Analyses, Agendas and Priorities for Education in Africa. A Review of Externally Initiated, Commissioned and Supported Studies of Education in Africa, 1990-1994 (and its summary). Prepared by Joel Samoff with N'Dri Thérèse Assié-Lumumba in collaboration with Lucila Jallade, Marc Cohen and the Steering Committee of WGESA, 1996, 324 pp., Paris. About the Reviewer Mitiku Adisu was for many years involved in youth training and development in Ethiopia. He has a doctorate in Higher Education Leadership and Policy from Peabody College of Vanderbilt University. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Reagan, Timothy. (2005). Critical Questions, Critical Perspectives: Language and the Second Language Educator. Reviewed by Na Liu, Arizona State University

Reagan, Timothy. (2005). Critical Questions, Critical Perspectives: Language and the Second Language Educator. Greenwich: CT: Information Age Publishing Inc. Pp. x + 145 $69.95   ISBN 1-59311-335-8 Reviewed by Na Liu Arizona State University January 27, 2006 Critical Questions, Critical Perspectives is different from most other books about language and foreign language teaching. It does not address anything related to language teaching methods, nor language assessment and management. Instead, as Reagan states in the preface, “it asks the language educator to step back from his or her daily challenges and concerns and consider some of the many important theoretical issues that underlie and inform our pedagogy and profession” (p. ix). As the title suggests, throughout the seven chapters of the book, the author maintains a critical perspective toward various language issues. Chapter One deals with whether language really exists. Reagan starts by pointing out some popular assumptions about language, such as “language can be presented as an objective reality” and “the language user can meaningfully be separated from the language” (p. 1). Underlying these assumptions is the ideology of logical positivism which “presupposes the existence of an external reality which we can seek to recognize and understand” (p. 2). One of the influential scholars to apply this ideology to language is Chomsky, who presented language as a knowable entity. According to the author, this conceptualization of language oversimplifies not only language itself, but also the components of language and the skills related to language teaching and learning. Contrary to Chomsky’s view of language, Reagan argues that any language is a moving target. In the process of teaching and learning any language, educators and learners need to be aware of the context in which the language is being taught and learned. Since language is always changing and cannot be objectified, then the question arises of what it means to know a language. In Chapter Two, the author addresses this question. After going over Plato’s pulling knowledge out of the student and Locke’s pouring knowledge into the student, Reagan presents his own understanding of language from a constructivist point of view: He urges the readers to consider the potential contributions of constructivism to second and foreign language teaching and learning. Learning itself is development. Emphasis should be placed on the individual learner’s construction of his or her knowledge. Although according to Piaget and Vygotsky, constructivism can be either radical or social, Reagan finds a reasonable way to combine these two to present learning as “socially mediated but personally constructed” (p. 23). The author also mentions that constructivism does not claim to provide earth-shaking recommendations in the area of education, but only provides teachers with a solid conceptual basis for some of the things they have done without theoretical foundation. Constructivist teaching entails the complementary and interactive roles of the individual and the social construction of language. As for second and foreign language learning, Williams and Burden have identified several propositions from constructivist views, including “learners learn what is meaningful to them” and “learning is influenced by the situation in which it occurs” (1997, pp. 204-208). Shifting emphasis from teaching to learning is a step forward in foreign and second language teaching. Reagan seems to contradict himself regarding the role of traditional transmission-oriented learning. Early on, he claims that “as an epistemology, constructivism entails the rejection of traditional transmission-oriented views of learning, as well as behaviorist models of learning” (p. 23). Later, he writes that “it is important to understand that no pedagogical approach would be excluded by a commitment to constructivist epistemology” (p. 32). This sort of eclecticism is confusing when one seeks to place in perspective the role of transmission-oriented views of learning a foreign language. In Chapter Three, Reagan discusses the benefits of learning a foreign language. That scarcely two thousand out of a hundred thousand pupils who learn French will actually use it is quite surprising and raises the question why one should study a foreign language at all. In this chapter, instead of providing the traditional argument for language learning (one might increase one’s chances of getting a job), the author makes three arguments in favor of language learning: from an epistemological, a sociopolitical and an interpersonal perspective. Language can help people perceive and understand reality, raise people’s language awareness, and make them aware of their dominance of the communicative situation. These arguments provide a unique perspective for understanding the benefits of studying a foreign language. Even though in reality second language learners may not find ways to use the language, they can still benefit from the learning experience cognitively. In Chapter Four, the author goes into the issue of language rights, dividing them into negative language rights and positive rights. Negative language rights focus on prohibiting actions and policies that unfairly target minority groups; positive language rights have the states take initiatives to create favorable conditions to allow minorities’ development of their culture, language, religion, traditions, and customs. After the discussion of language rights, Reagan points out that “if the individual has the right to an education in his or her native language, he or she also has a responsibility to learn the socially dominant language of his or her society” (p. 50). This dialectical argument provides readers with a complete picture of language rights, which cannot be separated from language responsibility. Some issues related to language rights in U.S. public education are the debates over bilingual education vs. English as a second language or over a hierarchy of languages and language varieties. In all these discussions, the author attempts to help language and second language educators develop an understanding of the relationship between language and power in society, matters of language attitudes and bias, and matters of language dominance and bias. Language is embedded in society and is therefore unavoidably influenced by society. Reagan agrees with this point by stating “although linguists stress the fundamental equality of languages, some languages are clearly, in social, demographic, economic, and political terms, ‘more equal’ than others” (p. 60). Comparing the difficulties of learning different languages for native English speakers, Reagan finds that there were no explanations why some languages are less commonly taught at school. Instead, he finds that educators need to consider such influences as social, cultural, economic, political, demographic, and ideological beliefs and attitudes when considering why some languages are less commonly taught. Chapter Six, “Language Learning and Feelings of Disgust,” deals with the case of Esperanto, which was invented by a Polish Jewish ophthalmologist to be used as a universal language. Foreign language educators often tend to see Esperanto as an affront partly due to its artificiality and supposed ease of acquisition. Reagan attempts to provide a broad overview of Esperanto and its current research evidence. After elaborating the many reasons why Esperanto proponents favored it as a world language and the relevant research to prove the easy acquisition of the language, the author points out some shortcomings of the research, such as “the greatest support for the claims made by Esperantists tends to be anecdotal and personal in nature” (p. 97). Despite the criticisms of the research on Esperanto, the author still regards Esperanto as a fascinating phenomenon; it “provides language educators with an important case study of language, language attitudes, and the symbolic value of language” (p. 99). Chapter Seven deals with language endangerment and language death. It is estimated that in the present century more than half of the approximately 6,000 languages in the world will die, and as few as 600 languages may survive in the long run (p. 104). The author provides several reasons why language endangerment is of concern to second and foreign language educators, one of which is that different languages construct reality in different ways, “offering distinct epistemological lenses for understanding the world” (p. 107). However, I do not believe that these reasons can adequately explain why second language educators should be concerned with language endangerment. Instead, it is an argument for why human beings should maintain language diversity. Though ideally all languages should be maintained, in reality as Newman claims in his article “The Endangered Languages Issue as a Hopeless Cause,” “despite the best intentions of many well-meaning and dedicated linguists, the rapid disappearance of languages throughout the world is likely to continue unabated…” (2003, p. 11). Reagan uses ASL (American Sign Language) as an example of an endangered language. He claims that “ASL, in short, is at risk precisely because its users are seen not as a linguistic minority, but rather as disabled” (p. 117), which provides a critical perspective on how to view deaf persons and their language. Reagan puts forward critical arguments about several language issues which are of concern to language or second language educators. Regardless of whether readers are persuaded by the arguments, this book can enrich their understanding of language issues and spark educators’ critical thinking beyond their everyday routine. References Crookall, D., & Oxford, R. (1988). Review Essay. Language Learning, 31, 128-140. Newman, P. (2003). The endangered languages issue as a hopeless cause. In M. Janse & S. Tol (Eds.), Language death and language maintenance (pp.1-13). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Williams, M., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. About the Reviewer Na Liu is a Ph.D. student in College of Education, Arizona State University. Her research interests focus on second language teaching and acquisition, heritage language maintenance, and language policy. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Franklin, V. P. & Savage, Carter Julian (Eds.) (2004). Cultural Capital and Black Education: African American Communities and the Funding of Black Schooling, l865 to the Present. Reviewed by Mary Dolores Guerra, Arizona State University

Franklin, V. P. & Savage, Carter Julian (Eds.) (2004). Cultural Capital and Black Education: African American Communities and the Funding of Black Schooling, l865 to the Present. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, Inc. Pp. ix + 184 $34.95   (Papercover) ISBN 1-59311-040-5 $69.95   (Hardcover) ISBN 1-59311-041-3 Reviewed by Mary Dolores Guerra Arizona State University January 23, 2006 A common myth is that African Americans do not value education. Cultural Capital and Black Education helps to dispel this myth and instead informs the reader that education is a core value in African American communities. This book is the second volume in Research on African American Education; the series editors are Carol Camp Yeakey and Ronald D. Henderson. Earlier versions of six chapters in this volume were published in The Journal of African American History, vol. 88, Spring 2002. The book is co-edited by V.P. Franklin from Teachers College, Columbia University, who is a professor of history and education. Franklin also is the editor of The Journal of African American History. The other co-editor is Carter Julian Savage from the Boys & Girls Clubs of America, who is the vice president of Youth Development Services for the Club and an education historian. Savage’s focus is on African Americans in the rural South, education of contemporary African American youth, and the theoretical framework of after-school educational programs for at-risk youths. Both editors contribute chapters to this book. The articles in this volume document African American contributions through their “cultural capital” in the educational arena to all-black public and private educational institutions in Ohio, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, Tennessee, and other northern and southern states between 1865 and the present. In the Foreword, Camp Yeakey and Henderson, write that this volume is “so unique” because it examines the role of African Americans in providing the financial and other material resources for African American schools in the United States. Further, the series editors state that African Americans recognized the “value of literacy and school for themselves and their children, literacy and formal schooling became closely associated with freedom, with emancipation” (p. ix). In the Introduction, co-editor V.P. Franklin defines “cultural capital” as “the sense of group consciousness and collective identity that serves as an economic resource for the financial and material support of business enterprises that are aimed at the advancement of an entire group” (p. xiv). The other authors share this definition. One of the main reasons that African American communities had to use their “cultural capital” was because state and local officials did not provide equal or even adequate funding for separate public black schools. School officials paid the salaries of black teachers, usually at a lower rate than they paid white teachers, but black schools lacked the resources--“blackboards, pencils, books, chairs, desks and even land and the buildings”--for basic instruction, (p. xii). African American communities had to provide these resources for their students or else the children would do without. In essence, impoverished African Americans paid “double taxation” (p. xii). Any tax they paid to the government for education went primarily to white schools Franklin asserts that formerly enslaved African Americans were willing to submit to this form of double taxation because education was a core value in their cultural value system, a pathway to literacy and freedom. All nine chapters of this book demonstrate the ways African Americans used cultural capital to support the education of the children within their communities. In chapter one, "’I Must Learn Now or Not at All’: Social and Cultural Capital in the Educational Initiatives of Formerly Enslaved African Americans in Mississippi, 1862-1869,” Christopher M. Span explains that in Mississippi during the Reconstruction period, African Americans pushed for public schools to educate equally every child, black or white. Span describes the grass roots efforts of formerly enslaved African Americans to educate their children. He echoes Franklin’s claim that formerly enslaved African Americans valued education because they associated it with “freedom, autonomy, and self-determination” (p. 4). Obtaining an education served a “dual purpose”: any amount of education helped shed their “slave status” and gave them “greater freedom as prospective citizens” (p. 4). Further, African Americans valued literacy for practical reasons; they could “read the Bible and teach it to their children, understand their legal rights, negotiate labor contracts, and buy or lease land” (p. 5). This chapter also describes the steps African Americans took to build their own schools, pay teachers’ salaries, and purchase land, even though they were landless and poverty-stricken. Monetary contributions were not the only ways African Americans provided for their children’s education, they also paid their teachers by providing clothing and food, local transportation and shelter, in addition to providing labor for the building the schools. Theses examples of cultural capital further dispel the myth that African Americans do not value education. In chapter two, “Owning, Controlling, and Building Upon Black Cultural Capital: The Albany Enterprise Academy and Black Education in Southeast Ohio, 1863-1886,” Adah Ward Randolph maintains that education was essential to securing African American freedom and their cultural development. Randolph describes the pursuit of education in a northern state, Ohio, where African Americans lived with the “black laws” imposed on them. Although the Ohio constitution of 1803 required the formation of common schools, public schools were not established until 1925. Whites were against the inclusion of African Americans at these common schools. In 1929, the newly passed black laws excluded all black youth from participating in the public school system in Ohio. In response, African Americans in the early 1930s, using their cultural capital, established separate educational institutions, owned and operated by African Americans. This chapter highlights several all black private schools in Ohio. One of those schools was known as the Albany Manual Labor academy, which opened in 1950, At this school, students and teachers both performed manual labor to help offset the costs and expenses of the school. A unique characteristic of the school was that it admitted African Americans and women. The academy not only instructed its students in basic education but also prepared them for college. In 1853, the Academy became Albany Manual Labor University. In a strange twist of fate, however, in 1862 due to the lack of funding and the outbreak of the Civil War, the Academy was sold to a Christian church and became Franklin College, which did not admit African Americans. This chapter also traces the history of the Albany Enterprise Academy and the influence of abolitionist Thomas Jefferson Ferguson upon the Academy. The Albany Enterprise Academy’s 1864 constitution stated, “We have established [this Academy] to demonstrate the capacity of colored men to originate and successfully manage such a school” (p. 20). Ferguson, the author of Hope of the Race, published in 1966, believed that “education was the key to African American Advancement” (p. 20). Not until after the Civil War did black children gain access to public education in Ohio. Chapter 3 explores African Americans’ pursuit of higher education during segregation. In “Cultural Capital and Black Higher Education: The AME Colleges and Universities as Collective Economic Enterprises, 1865-1910,” co-editor Franklin describes early efforts of African American churches to establish institutions of higher education. These institutions depended on several types of capital--social, financial, physical, and human--in the form of teachers and administrators. Cultural capital was also an important economic resource because the religious denominations could use it to raise funds for the institutions. Franklin claims that collective economic enterprises and philanthropy opened higher education institutions and have been “important for the social development and advancement of African Americans in the United States” (p. 45). In chapter four, co-editor Carter Julian Savage, in “Our School in Our Community: The Collective Economic Struggle for African American Education in Franklin, Tennessee, 1890-1967,” directs the reader’s attention to African American community’s “agency” and their cultural capital in the south. Savage writes that African Americans, historically “have struggled to obtain effective education through numerous self-determinist strategies” (p. 51). He describes these strategies as “agency,” , which stem from a”an African American ethos of self-determination and social advancement” (p. 50), African Americans held Bible study groups on plantations and established segregated public schools. Savage writes that four elements comprised this agency: “1. African Americans’ zeal for education[,] 2. the African American community’s propensity to give to their schools[,] 3. the devotion of poorly paid, African American teachers[, and] 4. the willingness of African American students to attend “distressingly poor facilities” (p. 52). Savage gives several examples of schools established by African American cultural capital. He also states that one of the “most explicit ways the black community used cultural capital for education was in the area of ‘resource development’” (p. 67), for example by hosting “pie struts,” “cake walks,” and “queen drives” (p. 67). Parents and teachers willingly participated in these events for the betterment of the children. In the final section of this chapter, “Desegregation and the Loss of Cultural Capital,” Savage asserts that the closing of all black schools after desegregation was an end of an era that meant a “loss of tradition, ownership and the collapse of a school community” (p. 72). Savage further asserts that African American cultural capital was “important for their children, for their schools, and for their community” (p. 74). Chapter 5 takes us to Texas to explore cultural capital in that region. Peggy B. Gill, in “Community, Commitment, and African American Education: The Jackson School of Smith County, Texas, 1925-1954,” discusses the importance of bringing “soul” to the school. The soul she speaks of is not necessarily a religious soul but about spirituality. This chapter presents a narrative about Jackson School, using the voices of teachers and students who experienced the school’s origins and development. Gill describes an ethic of caring and commitment to education of African Americans during segregation. The recollections of the teachers and students provide “rich historical, personal, and cultural information” (p. 94). Besides this information, the recollections also provide important data for today’s educators. Success was not measured by achievement tests or college entrance exam scores, but instead it was determined by “individual student participation and achievement, parental participation in and support of the school, student employability, and benefits provided to the community” (p. 95). Gill urges educational leaders to consider the “important relationship between a community and its school(s)” (p. 95). [Mary: if you added the “s” to “school” then it should be in brackets, not parens. [That’s how Gill wrote the sentence]] Chapter 6 looks at nearly a hundred years of philanthropy among African American women. Bettye Collier-Thomas, in "’Sister Laborers’: African American Women, Cultural Capital, and Educational Philanthropy, 1865-1970,” describes black women’s philanthropic activities in the areas of education, health, and social welfare. Collier-Thomas states that “women who engaged in reform work were philanthropists” (p. 97). One of her goals in this chapter is to shatter the myth of black apathy regarding community needs. Collier-Thomas states that black women engaged in philanthropic activities to benefit African Americans as a group. She asserts that the “history of African American women and philanthropy has not been written” (101). She further maintains that “dual consciousness of race and gender” fuels the philanthropic efforts of generations of black women. Collier-Thomas demonstrates that by using their cultural capital African American women accomplished many important and notable works. In chapter seven "’Maintaining a Home for Girls’: The Iowa Federation of Colored Women's Clubs at the University of Iowa, 1919-1950,” Richard M. Breaux adds to Collier-Thomas work by describing the formation of a residence hall for African American women at the University of Iowa. The hall was created because blacks were not allowed in the all-white dormitories. The hall was established through collective efforts of an African American women’s club. The sacrifices the club made inspired the women who served to use their education for the advancement of the African American group as a whole. In Chapter 8, “Paradise Lost?: Teachers' Perspectives on the Use of Cultural Capital in the segregated Schools of New Orleans, Louisiana,” Monica A. White depicts the public school system in Louisiana before, during and after segregation. She quotes W.E.B. du Bois as stating that African Americans did not need segregated schools or mixed schools, what they needed was an education. White states that the kind of education du Bois meant was a quality education. White writes that before desegregation African American teachers taught black pride to their students. Further, White adds, teachers considered their work a calling, a vocation. Teachers lived and worked in the community, they had an investment in it. “Teachers served as intellectual role models” (p. 145), writes White. Teachers were on a “mission” (p. 146). In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court’s Brown decision ended legal segregation. In southern school districts, desegregation not only meant the loss of hundreds of jobs for teachers and principals but also meant the loss of “race-conscious education” (p. 146). The closure of all black schools implied that these schools were “inherently inferior” (p. 149), and that black children had to leave their schools to attend all white schools, thus, they carried the burden on their young backs. Further, teachers no longer felt a part of the community; they felt like outsiders, teaching the curriculum that was given to them, instead of creating a curriculum designed to meet the needs of their students. White encourages today’s teachers to once again strive to become role models, mentors, to have a sense of mission and a spirit of professionalism to increase academic success among African American children in urban public school settings. In the final chapter, Chapter 9, “Social Capital, Cultural Capital, and the Challenge of African American Education in the 21st Century,” co-editor Franklin helps the reader understand the disconnect between previous generations of African Americans who eagerly contributed to the education of their youth and today’s generation that seems apathetic about the educational problems that afflict their community. Franklin asserts that integration has meant the demise of excellent all-black schools and other cultural institutions. Moreover, Franklin asserts that “African Americans came to believe that the government would assume responsibility for protecting the health, physical, and intellectual well-being of African American children, and for preparing them for their role as contributing adults in American society” (p. 162). Franklin states that integration should be about helping African Americans reach their collective vision; this vision has been articulated in response to the question, “Why are we here?” (p. 162). He admits that the older generation of African Americans has not prepared its young people to answer this question. He claims that a need for a “new educational organization” exists to assume leadership to help prepare the children for their future (p. 163). Franklin proposed that this organization would be called the African American Council on Education (AACE). Franklin states that he would encourage the AACE not to get “bogged down” in trying to achieve “the myth of ‘black unity’” instead to strive for solidarity (p. 165). The AACE’s main objective would be to “generate and use cultural capital to support the implementation of culturally salient models of schooling for African American children” (p. 165). In doing so, Franklin believes that African American children then can answer the all-important question, “Why am I here?” This book helps dispel the myth that African Americans do not value education by demonstrating the sacrifices that freed slaves made to educate themselves and their children. One element that flows from this book, which author Gill’s chapter demonstrated, is soul. This soul strengthens and at the same time softens the discussion. The chapters deeply moved me, and I believe it will move readers to reconsider the assumptions held about the African American community’s regard for education. African Americans cared and care deeply about educating their children. The book did not get lost in a romantic vision of the past; instead the chapters were real, presenting stories of real people who were committed to the advancement of their community during segregation and desegregation. About the Reviewer Mary Dolores Guerra is a Ph.D. student in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Arizona State University. Her focus is on Dropout Prevention and High School Completion. She obtained her J.D. from UCLA School of Law in 2000 and is an attorney in Phoenix, Arizona. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.

Borman, Kathryn M. and Associates (2005). Meaningful urban education reform: Confronting the learning crisis in mathematics and science. Reviewed by Ubiratan D’Ambrosio, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo

Borman, Kathryn M. and Associates (2005). Meaningful urban education reform: Confronting the learning crisis in mathematics and science. Albany: State University of New York Press. Pp. xvi + 285 $27.95   (paper cover) ISBN 0-7914-6330-3 $89.50   (hardcover) ISBN 0-7914-6329-X Reviewed by Ubiratan D’Ambrosio Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo January 27, 2006 This book is an evaluation of the impact of educational reform on urban schools focusing on mathematics and science. The urban environment has come under special scrutiny in the evaluation of educational systems. Particularly in the decades, after WW II, the entire world is affected by new demographic patterns, causing profound changes in urban areas which are strongly reflected in urban schools. Families move more frequently within countries and the increase in the number of foreign immigrants, both legal and illegal, requires new concepts of curricula, a new preparation of teachers and much closer attention to the relations of schools with families and the community. There is a general recognition that the quality of urban education has been deteriorating. Low scores in national assessments are discouraging. When compared with other nations, the poor performance of U.S. students in science and mathematics is the object of serious concern, to the point of considering the nation to be "at risk." This is aggravated by the fact that the general public is witnessing an amazing increase in the presence of high technology in all sectors of society, and it is clearly understood that this technology depends fundamentally on science and mathematics. Hence, the demands for reform, for higher standards for students and teachers and for academically challenging core curricula in science and mathematics are no surprise. These demands come from families, communities, economic sectors and, especially, from young people concerned about their own future. Employment prospects are regarded with pessimism by most young adults. Clearly, poor preparation in science and mathematics is regarded as one of the causes of this pessimism. The proposals for reform usually focus on new curricula, teacher preparation, improved supporting materials, such as books and technological devices, and an enormous emphasis on testing. It is recognized that efforts for school improvement to prevent student failure have been piecemeal, targeting specific factors, rather than looking at the system as a whole. In 1993, the National Science Foundation established the Urban Systemic Initiatives (USI) program, making funding available to urban school districts with the highest rates of poverty among their school-aged children. School districts eligible according to the 1990 Census applied for the USI grants; twenty-one received a total of 15 million dollars each to carry out systemic reforms in mathematics and science education. The funds were aimed at developing, expanding, and sustaining reform through partnerships with business, educational institutions, and community organizations. In 1999, the National Science Foundation awarded a grant to Kathryn M. Borman for a project on “Assessing the Impact of the National Science Foundation’s Urban Systemic Initiative,” which was carried out at the David C. Anchin Center, housed at the University of South Florida. The David C. Anchin Center has traditionally worked with teachers, school administrators, and the community to pursue excellence in schools. As stated in the book, “The major goals of the research study were: (1) to assess the impact of the USI reforms by modeling relationships between latent variable (driver) and a set of indicator variables [outcomes]; (2)to determine how reforms in curriculum and instruction affect teacher [practices] and student outcomes at the classroom level through the enacted standards-based curriculum in mathematics and science; and (3) to investigate the roles of leadership, local resource, and national, state, and local policies related to systemic reform that foster or inhibit student achievement outcomes and outcome differences.” (p.11) This book reports the results of the three-year study conducted by the Center. The book is organized in nine chapters and two appendices: Chapter 1: Historical Context: How National Science Foundation Reforms Build on Earlier Reforms; Chapter 2: The Importance of District and School Leadership; Chapter 3: Building Relationships to Sustain Reform; Chapter 4: Professional Development in Systemic Reform; Chapter 5: Instructional Practices in Mathematics and Science Classrooms; Chapter 6: Student Engagement in Mathematics and Science; Chapter 7: Closing the Achievement Gap; Chapter 8: School Culture: The Missing Lever in Improving Student Outcomes and Achieving Sustainable Reform; Chapter 9: What Have We Learned? A Summary of Key Findings; Appendix A: Instrumentation; Appendix B: Survey of Classroom Practices. In addition to the chapters and appendices, there are a few Notes, a bibliography of Works Cited, a List of Contributors with short biographies, and an Index. In Chapter 1, we find a thorough description of the USI program. Table 1.2 gives the six influences around which the USI program was organized and which synthesize the most basic issues in school systems. The table and the comments are a useful guide for initiatives which can be carried on independently by any school district. The six influences (or "drivers" as they are called) identified by NSF were required foci of any assessment of progress of a USI initiative. These policy levers were broad enough to allow for specification within each school district. The first four drivers, called process drivers, focus on sustainable success in changing the system’s approach to the teaching and learning of mathematics and science. The last two drivers, called the outcome drivers, focus on the end result of the reform effort, which aimed at increasing achievement in mathematics and science and closing the existing achievement gaps among ethnic or racial groups prevailing in the districts. In addition to the six drivers proposed by the NSF, the authors suggest a possible 7th Driver: school culture. Indeed, “school culture must be viewed as a mediating set of factors that influence the creation of social ties and relationships, and is likely the critical element enhancing or curtailing effective teaching and successful student outcomes.”(p.7) The David C. Archin Center project analyzed four school districts which had operated the USI programs for at least four years: Chicago, Miami-Dade County, Memphis and El Paso. The reasons for this selection are well explained. With different characteristics, these four districts permit a general view of what is going on in other school districts, indeed, also in other countries, since the conditions which generated the NSF project are universal. All four cities selected for the research faced state-imposed mandates to improve school performance and to raise students' test scores. Within each district, school selection and teacher selection were the result of an elaborate sampling process. Forty-seven schools were selected, located in all sectors of the four cities. The schools included twenty elementary schools, fifteen middle schools, and twelve high schools. The goal of the sampling process was to obtain sample schools that: (1) were reasonably representative of the school district; (2) evidenced substantial variability in the extent to which the schools participated in the USI reform initiatives; and (3) were likely to present limited confounding of driver variability in other extraneous variables. Teacher selection was also crucial for the research. Within each sampled school, five teachers were selected. In all, 230 teachers participated in the in-depth study. Subject areas of mathematics and science were privileged. The selection, in each school, aimed at teachers who had appropriate certification, who had been teaching for more than three years at the school, and who were willing to participate in the three-year study. Table 1.3 shows, in numbers and percentages, the characteristics of participating teachers, according to Gender, Race/Ethnicity, Years Teaching, and Years in Present School. It reveals a predominance of female teachers in the sample (70% female vs 30% male), a predominance of African Americans and Latinos (58.3% vs 39.6% Caucasians). In Years of Teaching, the predominance was of teachers with 12 or more years experience. This may introduce a source of bias in the study. The generation gap is accelerating rapidly. One can notice among young teachers a form of behavior very different from “old timers.” The procedures for data collection are well reported. A variety of data collection techniques were employed. The aim was to gather information from key individuals from the community, representatives from the district, school-level leaders, teachers, and students. The information was obtained through classroom observations, interviews, surveys of teachers and students, experience sampling, and archival document review. The data collected were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. The multifaceted and multilevel Table 1.4 shows the many sources of data and the appropriate analysis procedures. Appendix A shows a detailed description of the instruments designed to measure aspects of the NSF six drivers. Some of these instruments were, necessarily, modified by the USI research staff in the course of the evaluation research. Appendix A and the steps and issues listed there may provide, with minor adaptation, a good instrument for the self-study of school systems. More than just getting a picture of the current state of affairs, they may serve as a guideline for the further development of school systems. Chapter 2 addresses the critical question of the role of institutional and individual leadership in systemic reform. Based on interviews, the research focuses of gathering data on the place of the USI initiative in the reform agenda of the districts. The critical issue of funding is raised. The NSF provided 15 million dollars over four years, but this amount of money is relatively small in larger districts. Since NSF requires the reform to be at the center of all that the district does, the allocation of these resources is a crucial issue. The results of the research confirm that leadership at the district and school levels is fundamental for systemic change. Another issue, which is very clear in this research, is that administrators are under a great deal of pressure for accountability and productivity at the district and school levels. Almost all the principals interviewed spoke of the role played by standardized tests in instruction and accountability in their schools. The chapter concludes with an observation about the need for administrators to juggle diverse and often conflicting demands. The NSF Six-driver Model, mentioned in Chapter 1, particularly Diver 4, emphasizes the importance given to collaboration and cooperation within districts and between schools and the larger community. Chapter 3 addresses this issue. The research focuses on the participation of communities and parent stakeholders in the USI reform. The key consideration is the mobilization of resources among various constituencies. The chapter is organized around data collection about the engagement of stakeholders, the school level reports of increasing stakeholder involvement, especially principals' views of this involvement. Also analyzed is the perception of community stakeholders of the impact of their involvement on student outcomes. Particularly significant are principals' perceptions of stakeholders' motivations. The main motivation identified by stakeholders are completing high school, gaining acceptance to college, and finding a career. This is a universal expectation of everyone involved in education. But the complexity of society, the changing economy, and obsolete schooling frustrate these expectations, generate disenchantment with schools and pave the way to cynical attitudes. This was well discussed, some years ago, by Robert Reich (1991). More attention must be given to exploring new ways of organizing the curriculum. I have proposed a few years ago a new curriculum concept (D'Ambrosio, 1999). Understandably, this book does not venture into discussing new curricular directions, although a similar issue, the school culture, which I will mention later in this review, offers the possibility of considering something new in schooling. The perception of community stakeholders of the impact of their involvement on student outcomes also recognizes how involvement increases skills and achievement. There exists virtual unanimity about the recognition of the importance of involving just about every constituency in the efforts to enhance student outcomes. But there is also the recognition that USI reform efforts did not impact the involvement of these constituencies in schools. Reform initiatives, particularly the Urban Systemic Initiative, largely depend on the continuing professional development of teachers, particularly teachers in the middle and high school grades. The reform depends on the professional development of teachers to deal with direct, hands-on, problem solving, pedagogical strategies and content knowledge. Chapter 4 focus on these developments and their effect on classroom practices. Very important in this chapter is the discussion of teachers’ perceptions of reform and their perceptions of how they changed their classroom practices as a result of their involvement in professional development. Table 4.2 give details of the outcome of the analysis of time spent in professional development and impact on teaching practices. In addressing questions related to the ways professional development influenced classroom practices of teachers, the research reveals, for many teachers, only tenuous links between professional development and classroom instruction. It is not surprising that most teachers had problems in relating their professional development experiences to their day-to-day classroom practices. In the conclusion of this very central chapter, the researchers argue “professional development should be tied to both subject matter content and pedagogical strategies, incorporating challenging subject matter and instructional approaches. In addition, during the course of the school year, professional development should occur at the school site level, especially when the implementation of new curricula and instruction is in question.” (p.86) Chapter 5 analyzes what happens in the classroom. Indeed, an effective systemic reform must result in improvements in classroom practices and in student learning. To what degree are the science and mathematics being taught consistent with national mathematics and science education standards? This was the guiding question of this phase of the research. The conclusions were drawn from classroom observations, teacher and students surveys, and teacher questionnaires. The responses were analyzed using the standards-based reform agenda and the scale of best practices informed by national standards for mathematics and science instruction. The conclusions were particularly interesting. There are differences between teachers’ and students views. Particularly, “[we] found that students are often less sanguine about their teachers’ use of standards-based practices than the teachers themselves.”(p.88). A cluster analysis taking into account the points of view of teachers, students, and researchers illuminates the differences in perceptions. Indeed, changing teaching practices is much more complex than simply instructing teachers to change. Although not specifically addressing the very difficult issue of the culture of the teacher, the results of the research shed some light on this problem. It is difficult to deny that teachers act unconsciously in conservative ways. Changing teachers’ behavior, values and attitudes, particularly in science and mathematics education, is the crucial issue. I regard the few paragraphs under the heading “Instructional Practices” (pp. 89-92) as one of the best moments of this book. Classroom observational data were collected from field notes. The transcripts of these notes were analyzed using the Authentic Instructional Practices Coding Matrix (described in Appendix A), composed of four categories: classroom communication, social support, student engagement, and lesson coherence. This instrument allows for identifying whether teaching practices are teacher-centered, subject centered, or student-centered. This instrument reveals that “taken as a whole, teachers are providing instruction that does little to promote deep student engagement.”(p.130). This is one of a series of important remarks in the conclusion of chapter 5. A summarizing remark shows how delicate it is, and in cases how unsuccessful, to rely on the conventional staff development practices to disseminate activities which can be integrated into the teachers’ current practices. The final sentence of the Conclusion of the chapter reads thus: “These conventional practices view teaching as a collection of activities and not as a culturally coherent set of activities and beliefs that are bound together.”(p.134). The most important issue in attaining the goals of the USI is thereby identified: the culture of the teacher. Chapter 6 deals with students’ motivation to learn mathematics and science and what engages and sustains their attention in classroom. The research focuses on three major themes: types of classroom organizational patterns; students’ perceptions of classroom instruction; and individual teachers as units of analysis, examining data about their experience with USI reforms. In the analysis of classroom organization, results deal with whole-class instruction and lecturing, small-group work, and individualized work. Concerning time spent to learn topics in mathematics and science, it is recognized that it is not just time by itself that is critical, but it is how the time is used. It is also important to recognize how the duration of the class relates to students' socialization. Among the conclusions is the fidning that students attributed their levels of engagement primarily to their teachers’ instructional performance. Not surprisingly, students value social and affective elements, such as the teacher being concerned and passionate about students, as important features in helping them to improve their understanding of the content. Chapter 7 addresses the critical theme of closing the achievement gap between groups of underserved and more privileged students. The research focused on the NSF’s six-driver model, using analyses combining qualitative measures based on classroom observation and teacher and student reports and measures of student achievement. An elaborate path analysis touched all the six-drivers and expanded the domain to assess the importance of the seventh driver, school culture. An important finding suggests substantial positive associations between a strong and supportive school culture and achievement gains. The conclusion of the chapter points to the fact that USI has favored the reduction of the achievement gap, and that, compared with affluent, predominantly white, schools, the USI schools registered great progress in closing the gap. An interesting conclusion of this chapter claims that “In schools where teachers view themselves as learners and believe that their students can achieve, improved student outcomes are likely to result.”(p.195). But the results of the research reveal mixed findings concerning the linkages between teachers’ professional development, classroom instruction, and student academic achievement gains in mathematics. One remark sets the tone for all of Chapter 8: “The reforms ... were not systemic in that all teachers did not adopt student-centered practices. But, what if we considered the role of school context or culture as a moderating factor?”(p.196) The conceptualization of school culture is basic to the development of this chapter, probably the most provocative of the entire book. The authors claim that simply logging time for professional development is not enough to achieve the goals of the reform. They place a great deal of importance on the opportunity given to teachers to spend time with colleagues, learn from them and practice strategies with them that are to be used with students. The research investigated four main components: shared vision, facilitative leadership, teamwork, and learning communities. The authors draw lessons from studies of business organizations. They make the claim that visions seen only by the leaders, even if explicit in the objectives of the reform, do not create the necessary atmosphere to achieve the goals of the reform. The leaders' vision must be shared by all those involved in the process. Positive results are achieved if teachers assume a leadership posture among students. It is a fundamental task of individuals in a directing and managing role to facilitate the emergence of leadership in their constituency. Although enhancing individual teacher skills and knowledge is important, it is essential that teachers engage collectively to improve practice. This is the concept of a professional learning community. Chapter 9 is a summary of the key findings in this book. The authors synthesize the work that went into achieving the goals of the research into three strands: 1) the Study of the Enacted Curriculum; 2) the Policy Study; and 3) the Mathematics and Science Study. The synthesis involves the analyses of no fewer than 35 tables. The tables are a rich source of information about what is going on in the 47 schools and with the 230 teachers in the four school districts. The treatment given to the data collected was methodologically careful. The transformation of these findings into conclusions, with the nuances of a theoretical proposal, is a strong point of this book The decision to organize the results of the research in a book is most welcome. Dealing with specific districts, with very characteristic urban scenarios, and using a limited sample of schools and teachers, allows for generalizations and suggestions which can be adopted by every school district, not only those in the U.S. The book is an effective contribution to reforming schooling. References D’Ambrosio, Ubiratan. (1999). Literacy, Matheracy, and Technoracy: A Trivium for Today, Mathematical Thinking and Learning,1(2),131-153. Reich, Robert B. (1991). The Work of Nations. New York: Alfred Knopf. About the Reviewer Ubiratan D’Ambrosio is Professor at the Graduate Program in Mathematics Education of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, Brazil. His main interests are Ethnomathematics and Multicultural Education. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.