Hess, Frederick M. (ed.) (2008). When Research Matters: How Scholarship Influences Education Policy. Reviewed by Mark Oromaner

Hess, Frederick M. (ed.) (2008). When Research Matters: How Scholarship Influences Education Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press Pp. 324           ISBN 978-1-891792-84-7 Reviewed by Mark Oromaner March 28, 2009 An indication of the timeliness of When Research Matters is that in his recent inaugural address President Obama stated that his administration would “restore science to its rightful place.” What is the appropriate role of science in policy making in a democratic society? Partisanship aside, the President’s remarks remind us that there are connections between science and politics. Although the president used the term “science” and Hess uses “research” and “scholarship,” I think it is fair to say that from the perspective of this work, these terms can be employed interchangeably. Given the central role of education policy in this volume, I was concerned when I read that the papers were originally presented at a 2007 conference at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and that the editor, Hess, is a resident scholar and director of Educational Policy Studies at the AEI. However, a review of the professional activities of the 15 contributors, including Hess, lessened my concern. The expertise of each author is reflected in the informative and well reasoned nature of each of these well written papers. Current affiliations of the authors indicate that 13 hold academic positions, one is affiliated with a think tank (Hess), and one, Michael J. Petrilli, is vice president for national programs and policy at the Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. In their co-authored paper Manna and Petrilli state that the Fordham Foundation “is typically viewed as a conservative voice on education policy” (p.80). At the same time, the political independence of academic institutions does not mean that individual researchers are politically independent or not affiliated with paradigms that influence their work. Rather than focus on methodological or meta-methodological issues, authors of these papers explore concerns such as: “when and why research influences policy; what role is played by intermediaries like scholarly journals, advocacy groups, and the press; and how this affects contemporary school reform” (Hess, p.1). In terms of the production – dissemination – utilization of knowledge process, the emphasis is on the second and third steps. In the aggregate, these papers provide a realistic and balanced view of the ways in which education research is selected or sought to influence, support, inform, or change education policy in the pluralistic contemporary American society. Although throughout the emphasis is on the “soft tissue” between research and education policy, there is relatively little overlap among the particulars in the various papers. The first two chapters deal with the history of federal education research and the structural changes that account for the paradox that, at present, education research has high visibility but a problematic reputation. Chapters 3 – 5 are case studies of three of the hot current areas of debate: No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the reading wars, and “out-of-field” teaching. Each of these contains valuable lessons. Paul Manna and Michael J. Petrilli provide a detailed history of the limited role of research in what is arguably the most well-known and debated current education policy- NCLB. In particular they looked at the use of the phrase “scientifically based research” and the input of various groups into the use and misuse of the “highly qualified teachers” provision. In his research on the 40 plus years history of the reading wars (phonics vs. whole-language), James S. Kim documents ways in which research has been used and misused by both sides. A memorable example is the fate of the meta-analysis conducted by the National Reading Panel (NRP) comprising 15 experts. The NRP was formed as a reaction to the call by Congress for a synthesis of the best research on reading. A 464 page technical report and a 33 page summary were published. The summary was for distribution to teachers and lay audiences. The use of the summary for non-technical audiences makes sense, however, “(a)lthough the full NRP report provided insufficient data to draw conclusions about the effects of phonics instruction above the first grade, the summary indicated that systematic phonics benefited children from kindergarten to sixth grade” (p.104). Which “research” is to serve as a basis of the use of phonics? Prior to becoming a sociologist, Richard M. Ingersoll (University of Pennsylvania) taught high school. On the basis that experience he developed an interest in the “out-of-field” teaching phenomenon– the assignment of teachers to subjects in which they have little preparation, education or background. He has become the leading researcher on this issue. However, he points out how some have used his findings as “ammunition” to criticize the preparation of teachers, state certification standards, union rules, or teacher shortages. Each criticism has obvious policy implications. Ingersoll’s alternative explanation has structural implications. We must look at the nature of teaching as a profession and ways in which schools are managed and teachers are utilized once in the school. How do policy makers decide among various explanations of the same data? Readers interested in the impact of social science research on head start, kindergartens, and day care may wish to consult the work of Nawrotzki, Smith, and Vinovskis (2004). In chapter 6, William C. Howell reports on an imaginative design based on survey data to study the impact of education research on public opinion (possible but likely to be limited by prior commitments); in chapter 7, Joshua Dunn and Martin West demonstrate that as a result of the kinds of cases raised, research has had a decreasing influence in federal courts and an increasing influence in state courts; and in chapter 8 Lance D. Fusarelli argues that traditional research has limited impact on local school leaders, and that there are institutional, structural, and personal barriers that account for this. In the words of one superintendent, “schools aren’t structured for systematic organizational learning,” (Fusarelli, p. 191). In chapter 9, Dan D. Goldhaber and Dominic J. Brewer take an economic perspective (supply, demand, incentives) and return to the issue of the relatively low esteem of education research. They conclude that “…not enough of the research that is needed gets done, and too much of what is not needed is produced” (p.201). This is followed by a political analysis by Kenneth K. Wong (chapter 10). Researchers should never forget that they work within a political structure and culture. Perhaps the most important reminder from Wong is that “Good research has to compete with other forces to gain the attention of policymakers” (p.231). Research must be marketed. In the concluding chapter, Hess provides his insights into the limits to and opportunities for research to impact policy. Hess has also published recently (Hess, 2008) an article based on this collection. A negative comment is that Hess’s worthwhile introduction is marred by poor editorial work. For instance, in his overview of the book (pp. 11-15) he refers to chapter 1 as chapter 2 and continues with this pattern throughout his description. The careful reader will be distracted by this error. The good news is that this type of distraction is not found in the rest of the book. When Research Matters achieves what Frederick M. Hess defined as its aim to examine the research-policy nexus in the hope that fuller understanding might help researchers, public officials, and other interested parties play their roles more constructively” (p.2). I would stress the significance of including the next generation, i.e., graduate students, among the “other interested parties.” In a pluralistic society, research should not and cannot determine policy, however, the implementation of some of the recommendations in these papers may provide opportunities for research to play an increasingly larger role. In the words of Manna and Petrilli, I am “cautiously optimistic” (p.63). References Hess, F. M. (2008). “When Education Research Matters,” Society 45 (November/December):534-539. Nawrotzki, K. D.; Smith, A. M.; Vinovskis. M. (2004). Social Science Research and Early Childhood Education: A Historical Analysis of Developments in Head Start, Kindergartens, and Day Care. In Cravens, H. (Ed.) The Social Sciences Go To Washington: The Politics Of Knowledge In The Postmodern Age. Pp.155 – 180 . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. About the Reviewer Mark Oromaner Before his retirement from Hudson County Community College , NJ, Mark Oromaner served in a number of administrative positions. His primary responsibilities were in the areas of research, evaluation, grants, and planning. He has also taught sociology at Hunter College, CUNY and at Jersey City State College. His research has appeared in journals of sociology, higher education, social studies of science, and information sciences. His most recent research on the role of core journals in sociology appears in The American Sociologist.

Education Review: Brief Reviews from 1994 to 1997

Brief Reviews from 1994 to 1997 Ajayi, J. F. Ade; Lameck K. H. Goma; G. Ampah Johnson. (1996). The African Experience With Higher Education. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. A good overview of the history of higher education in Africa, this readable book also outlines the challenges that lie ahead. In addition to a general overview of the forces that shaped higher education in "Tropical Africa," there is substantial country by country and even school by school information here. The authors look realistically at the effects of colonialism, but do not adopt a demagogic stance as they argue for a truly African university system. Pages: 276    Price: $39.95    ISBN: 0-85255733-7 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Ashton, David and Francis Green. (1996). Education, Training and the Global Economy. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. This is an examination of the relationship of education and job training to production, and the government's role in that relationship. It is both enlightening and readable. The authors examine the historic basis of the relationship, do a review of previous scholarship, look in depth at aspects of the situation in several countries, including the U.S. and offer their own "framework for policy analysis." The fact that many countries and many institutions of higher education are examining the role that job training should play in education should tempt many education professionals to step a bit out of disciplinary bounds and give this book a read. Pages: 227    Price: $67.00    ISBN: 1-85278-970-0 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Atwater, Mary M., Kelly Radzik-Marsh, and Marilyn Strutchens (Eds). (1994). Multicultural Education: Inclusion of All. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. Somewhat deceptively titled, as it focuses on science and mathematics teaching in the K-12 classroom, this book is a collection of essays and research reports by teachers and teacher educators, most of whom have ties to the University of Georgia. Topics include teacher education for math and science instruction, varieties of learning and instruction styles and their cultural basis, assessment, and the influence of a multicultural society on student learning. The book would serve well as an introductory overview, giving the reader a feel for the variety of related issues. Pages: 297    Price: $13.00    ISBN: 0-9624818-2-3 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Bakkenes, I. (1996). Professional Isolation of Primary School Teachers: a Task Specific Approach. Leiden, Netherlands: DSWO Press, Leiden University. This book is a reprint of the author's doctoral thesis. It contains all of the careful and somewhat stilted language one expects from a thesis, and few current (later than 1993) references. The author details communication networks at several schools to identify isolated teachers. Via questionnaire teachers identify which tasks they accomplish independently and which they do with help from colleagues. The characteristics of the tasks are then examined to see which are indicative of a teacher's overall isolation. Pages: 188    Price: $    ISBN: 90-6695-123-0 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Banks, J. (1996). Strategies to Improve Young People's Access To, and Their Progression Within, Initial Vocational Training. Lanham, MD: European Commission Sales Agent. This book takes a brief view of who is not being served by the vocational training system, and then goes into some detail describing the various approaches being taken to deal with the problem, focusing on the schools, the training centers, the students and their instructors. The information presented is drawn from the national reports of 17 countries, but the presentation is focused on problem analysis and examination of responses, rather than cross-country comparison. Pages: 169    Price: 31 ECU    ISBN: 92-827-5654-8 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Barton, James and Angelo Collins (eds.). (1997). Portfolio Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. Innovative Learning Publications, Addison Wesley. For teachers struggling with implementing portfolio assessment this book might be an answer to their prayers. Each chapter was written by a teacher who has used portfolios and details their experiences. There are examples from every grade level and subject area. This practical approach means the book lacks supporting citations to research and analytic commentary to tie the various chapters together. Pages: 113    Price: $10.00    ISBN: 0-201-49387-x Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Beatty, Paulette T. and Mary Alice Wolf. (1996). Connecting with Older Adults: Educational Responses and Approaches. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing. This book provides an introduction to the ageing process and adult education. Major concepts are outlined, common stereotypes are discussed, and brief case studies are presented to aid understanding of major points. The writing style is accessible to all, though it would be used most beneficially in a classroom setting where the activities and discussion topics provided at the end of each section could be used in a group setting. While it does not explore any one topic in depth, major ideas are footnoted and there is an extensive bibliography. Pages: 135    Price: $18.00    ISBN: 0-89464-752-0 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Benner, Dietrich & Dieter Lenzen. (eds). (1996). Education for the New Europe. Providence RI: Berghahn Books. This is a rather disjointed collection of papers from the 1994 meeting of the German Association for Educational Research. While the lack of a systematic approach to the issue is disappointing, these papers offer valuable research and historical insights into European unification issues, especially in the area of education. Chapter titles include: Education and Training for Europe?; Hungarian Adolescents of the 1990's; Youth at Risk: Attitudes and Value Concepts among Young People in Europe at a Time of Social Change; School Reform between the Dictatorships: Pedagogics and Politics during the Early Years in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany; Democratisation and Europeanisation: Challenges to the Spanish Education System Since 1970; School Effectiveness; The New Generational Contract: Frome Private Education to Social Services; Tendencies Toward Pluralisation in Society and the Pedagogical Control of Risk; The State of Research into Economics Education. Pages: 184    Price: $29.40    ISBN: 1-57181-074-9 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Bertrand, O. (1996). Assessing and Certifying Occupational Skills and Competences in Vocational Education and Training. Paris, France: OECD. In 1990 the OECD began its program to look at the changing role of vocational and technical education and training. In 1992 it held a seminar to examine assessment, certification, and recognition of skills in the vocational and technical areas. This book is a report of that seminar. It discusses curricular and pedagogic implications, portability, and implementation implications and the role of assessment in training and in the labor market. Some country specific discussion is also presented. This is more a status report than an action plan. Some sections contain fairly lengthy bibliographies. Pages: 205    Price: $    ISBN: 92-64-14690-3 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Harris, Gill, & Cynthia Blackwell, (eds.). (1996). Environmental Issues in Education. Brookfield, VT: Arena/Ashgate Publishing. This book is very clearly a product of the United Kingdom. All the studies it reports were conducted in the U.K. by U.K. researchers. Several discuss the National Curriculum and specific British institutions. That said, there is still much here for readers from other countries. Essays report children's ideas about their own and the global environment, how other cultures in Europe and around the world look at environmental issues, and some model programs that give the environment a more central role in education. Pages: 207    Price: $46.95    ISBN: 1-85742-331-3 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Buzzell, Judith Brachman. (1996). School & Family Partnerships: Case Studies for Regular and Special Educators. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. This is truly just a book of cases, with brief introductory material and an extensive, current bibliography at the end. The cases are well presented and offer a spectrum of discussion topics. There are discussion questions and suggested activities after each, but the author offers no insights or unifying discussion. Pages: 156    Price: $17.00    ISBN: 0-8273-7163-2 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Canieso-Doronila, Maria Luisa. (1996). Landscapes of Literacy: An Ethnographic Study of Functional Paris, France: Unesco Institute for Education. The result of an Unesco funded study of Philippine literacy, this book ponders the measurement of literacy in developing countries, and it's relationship to the development process. The author looks at the literacy status and ways of using literacy and numeracy in a variety of Philippine communities. She then suggests that the capacity for abstracting knowledge from practice, willingness to continue to strive for a written literate knowledge, and the presence of a common social project to provide a focus for the community effort, are the key factors in determining progress toward literacy. The research suggests that only when a community has progressed to the point that its members need to be literate to preform their daily jobs, will literacy develop and be sustained. Pages: 206    Price: $22.95     ISBN: 1-898942-42161 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Cech, Maureen. (1996). GlobalSense: A Leader's Guide to Games for Change. Innovative Learning Publications Addison-Wesley. GlobalSense provides descriptions of fifty-seven interactive games for adolescents. All are aimed at exploring personal and societal biases and discrimination. Many are thought provoking enough that they seem sure to raise eyebrows if used in a school or similar compulsory setting. The author does provide a background reading list (pre 1994 materials) and sample letter to parents to help the user forestall negative responses. Pages: 140    Price: $14.00    ISBN: 0-201-49488-4 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Clegg, Luther B. (1995). Celebrating Diversity: A Multicultural Resource. Albany, New York: Delmar Publishers. This curriculum guide is intended for middle school level teachers, although some of the suggestions could easily be adapted to other levels. It offers ideas for enriching the curriculum with information about a variety of cultures. It does not offer information about teaching children from diverse backgrounds. The organization is by month, starting with September. For each month there is a multi-page calendar of holidays, anniversaries and miscellaneous observances from around the world. This is followed by a "Teaching Unit" which develops one major theme for the month. The "Teaching Unit" includes several pages of textual background for the unit. There are brief activity suggestions and reading lists, but these are not fully developed, off-the-shelf ready, lesson plans. There is one detailed plan for each month and these are well done and reflect current research (for example a February mini-play about Rosa Parks avoids the "tired Rosa" myth). Pages: 270     Price: $25.00    ISBN: 0-8273-6209-9 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Collett, Jonathan and Stephen Karakashian, (eds). (1996). Greening the College Curriculum: A Guide to Environmental Teaching in the Liberal Arts. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. This is a how-to curriculum guide for the college professor who would like to incorporate environmental analysis into an existing or specialized course within a traditional discipline. The disciplines covered include: Anthropology, Biology, Economics, Geography, History, Literature, Media and Journalism, Philosophy, Political Science, and Religion. Each section includes an overview of how environmental concerns could be approached and specific course and unit suggestions for accomplishing this. Contributors to this volume, which was partially sponsored by the Rainforest Alliance, cannot be accused of a lack of enthusiasm for their topic. This open and pervasive advocacy (how many literature classes will include an examination of the ecological impact of the steamboat in their discussion of Huckleberry Finn?) does result in a wealth of ideas, some rather outlandish, but many quite useful and worthy of consideration. Pages: 328    Price: $33.50     ISBN: 1-55963-421-9 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Collis, Betty, Iliana Nikolova, and Katerina Marcheva, (eds.). (1995). Information Technologies in Teacher Education: Issues and Experiences for Countries in Transition. Paris, France: UNESCO. This is a collection of papers from a 1994 conference held in the Netherlands, whose aim was to bring together educators from Eastern and Western Europe for an exchange of ideas, and an exploration of partnership possibilities. The initial section offers overviews of computer technology in various aspects of teacher education presented by faculty of the University of Twente. Later sections are papers by scholars from various European countries, some offering national or regional summaries, others case studies of particular programs. Many of the papers describe on-going projects, there are few bibliographies. Persons interested in the subject would find the list of participants helpful. Pages:     Price: $    ISBN: 92-3-103072-8 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Croll, Paul and Nigel Hastings. (1996). Effective Primary Teaching: Research Based Classroom Strategies. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd. A collection of contributed chapters, offering what the editors call "middle range strategies" (not overly broad or specific) for dealing with issues such as seat arrangements, behavior management, group work, etc. Each chapter presents a overview of research in a given area and discusses the pros and cons of various possible responses. The research review has a decidedly British emphasis. The editor's have done their job to assure that each chapter is readable and builds on the overall theme. Pages: 156     Price: $21.00    ISBN: 1-85346-394-9 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Five, Cora Lee and Marie Dionisio. (1995). Bridging the Gap: Integrating Curriculum in Upper Elementary and Middle Schools. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann. This book recounts in depth the collaborative experience of its two authors. The women worked together so that they could each integrate their teaching into the broader curriculum of their schools (one elementary, one middle school). Nearly half the book is devoted to lists of resources that would allow the reader to duplicate the two integrative theme units. The detail can be overwhelming, the reader is offered day by day synopses of classroom activities, followed by the phone call by phone call synopses of the collaborative process. After each author has an initial chapter to detail her journey, the remainder of the book switches between the two voices, sometimes paragraph by paragraph. While this writing approach is consistent with the authors' wish to enable their students critical thinking skills, it can be daunting reading. Pages: 265    Price: $19.75    ISBN: 0-435-08853-x Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Roberts, John M. (Merton J. England, editor) (1996). Buckeye Schoolmaster: A Chronicle of Midwestern Rural Life 1853-1865.Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. This book is the edited diaries and journals of John Roberts, a rural Ohio schoolmaster and farmer from 1853 to 1865. He details his life, including his school experiences, in a quiet, matter-of-fact voice. While some of his concerns, like wages and attendance, will resonate with current teachers; others, like finding a good "shingle tree for making shingles for the schoolhouse," will remind us of how far we've come. Pages: 308    Price: $45.00    ISBN: 0-87972-695-4 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Silverman, Stephen J. and Catherine D. Ennis, (eds.). (1996). Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. The editors aim to offer an synthesis of research knowledge as it impacts physical education professionals. They cover diversity and special needs issues, curriculum planning and integration with other curriculum areas, teacher effectiveness, assessment, teacher training, and other similar issues. The writing is clear and jargon free, the content timely and insightful. Each chapter contains a lengthy bibliography for further reading. Pages: 403    Price: $39.00     ISBN: 0-87322-714-x Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Epstein, Ann S., et al . (1996). Models of Early Childhood Education. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. This book offers a comparative analysis of six different models for early childhood education: Bank Street, Creative Curriculum, Direct Instruction, High/Scope, Kamii-DeVries, and Montessori. These models discussed in terms of their curriculum, including documentation, comprehensiveness, developmental appropriateness, and developmental effects. Training and dissemination issues are also examined. Readers get a clear picture of all six of these programs; the book is not just a clever ad for High/Scope. Pages: 257    Price: $25.95     ISBN: 0-929816-95-1 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Giagnocavo, Gregory, (ed.). (1996). Educator's Internet Companion: Classroom Connect's Complete Guide to Educational Resources on the Internet. Lancaster, PA: Wentworth Worldwide Media Inc. This is a guide to utilizing the internet in the classroom. It is aimed at beginners and presents information in enough detail that most beginners will not feel lost. While there are a number of lists of sites also included, persons already familiar with the internet will not find many surprises here. The attempt is to present the best rather than to be complete. Included are detailed lesson plans for a variety of subjects and grade levels, in depth looks at a few sites, lists of other sites to explore, and suggestions for obtaining funding to get started. There are also detailed instructions for using the various internet tools. The book comes with a video and disks. Pages: 271    Price: $54.00     ISBN: 0-932577-10-5 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Girard, Suzanne. (1996). Partnerships for Classroom Learning: From Reading Buddies to Penpals to the Community and the World Beyond.Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. This book examines four types of partnering programs for K-12 schools. It includes buddy programs within a school; partnering with a non-school community organization; pen pals using various types of mail technology; and twinning in which two classrooms from two different geographic areas collaborate extensively. Within each of these topics the authors discuss how to find a suitable partner, plan organization and curriculum, evaluate the project and record it for future use. A chatty style with lots of sample letters and journal entries makes the book easy reading, but may also limit its usefulness for all but the beginning teacher. More experiences teachers will want more examples of collaborative projects and fewer samples of teacher thinking and planning processes. Pages: 128    Price: $15.00     ISBN: 0-435-07230-7 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Griff, Merle D. et al. (1996). LinkAges: Planning an Intergenerational Program for Preschool. Innovative Learning Publications, Addison-Wesley Publishing. This "how-to" guide is an outgrow of the findings of the McKinley Centre Intergenerational Research Project based in Canton Ohio. It is divided into two parts; the first explores in detail various options for program development. The McKinley project studied interactions between preschool children and three groups of elders; frail elders, community elders, and persons in the early and middle stages of Alzheimers disease. The advantages and challenges of working with each of these groups are presented. The second part presents the various suggested activities for intergenerational programs. There is little here in the way of research report or literature review to help with program outlines, but the practical implementation information is thoroughly and clearly presented. Pages: 98    Price: $11.95    ISBN: 0 201 49427 2 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Perry, Phyllis J. (1996). Rainy, Windy, Snowy, Sunny Days: Linking Fiction to Nonfiction: Grades K-5. Englewood, CO.: Teacher Ideas Press. This book is an elementary level suggested reading list for an integrated unit on weather. For each book listed there is descriptive information, suggested grade level, and suggestions for activities related to the subjects discussed. I estimate there are 100 books listed here, enough, the author suggests, to allow students to pick their own selections for individual reading beyond the whole class activities. Pages: 147    Price: $18.50     ISBN: 1-56308-392-2 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Grineski, Steve. (1996). Cooperative Learning in Physical Education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. The first section of this book provides an overview of physical education teaching methods. The author favors the cooperative style and he explains his reasoning clearly and forcefully. The second and larger portion of the book provides suggestions for specific cooperative activities that will meet various learning goals. This is the section of the book that users will refer to repeatedly, and the author has helpfully provided an "Activity Finder" which allows the reader to indentify potential activities based on the age level, "Psychomotor Goals," and "Cooperative Learning Structure." While the activities are rated for use as either Primary (preschool and early elementary) or Intermediate (upper elementary and middle school) the discussion in the book shows that the author has successfully used some of these activities with his elementary education students at the college level. Author Grineski has been active in the physical education literature and may be known to many readers. Those who discover his work for the first time here are in for a treat. Pages: 136    Price: $15.00     ISBN: 0-87322-879-0 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University McIntyre, Donald and Hazel Hagger, (eds). (1996). Mentors in Schools: Developing the Profession of Teaching. London: David Fulton Publishers Ltd. This is a collection of research reports, unified by their funding under a joint proposal. Education of teachers within the schools is mandated in Britain and mentors play a large role in this process. The book is readable and relatively free of British specific language and abbreviations. The content is wholly British, in that the issues in mentoring, such as types of relationships, skills of mentors, administrative concerns, and responsibilities of mentors, are all dealt with within the British teacher training context. While the research results reported may very well be transferable to other situations, no attempt is made here to address that issue. Pages: 170    Price: $25.95     ISBN: 1-85346-411-2 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Hall, Valerie. (1996). Dancing on the Ceiling: A Study of Women Managers in Education. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Hall's research, which she reports here, involved an extensive study of six women head teachers at the elementary or secondary level. In addition to her observations, she interviewed both the women and those who work with them. The author has deliberately avoided a case study reporting style, choosing instead to discuss leadership issues topicallyand summarize findings rather than quote from interviews. This method facilitates the exploration of complex issues, but leaves the reader with only the author's interpretation of exchanges. Despite this reservation the book offers valuable insights. Pages: 214    Price: $    ISBN: 185396-287-2 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Harber, Clive, (ed). (1995). Developing Democratic Education. Ticknall, Derby: Education Now Publishing Cooperative. This is a collection of essays detailing the British experience with democratic education. The essays I sampled were well written and offered enough depth to be thought provoking without being prescriptive. The British influence is strongly felt in references to laws and practices not faced in the U.S., but the topic is one that has appeal on both sides of the Atlantic. An American reader should not have trouble making sense of the points being made, even if the examples are unfamiliar. The book begins with a background on the democratic education movement in Great Britain, looking at each level of education. The later essays are more specific, looking for example, at the role of school size, or the head teacher. Pages: 115    Price: $16.00    ISBN: 1-871526-22-1 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Harris, Cheryl. (1996). An Internet Education: A Guide to Doing Research on the Internet. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. This little handbook has much to recommend it. It is quite readable and covers all of the Internet tools most researchers would need. The emphasis is on understanding how the tools work and using them effectively. This is not list of sites to explore. It presumes the use of a SLIP/PPP account and a Windows based machine. Some of the instructions sections are rather brief and do not provide enough information go allow a reader to use the described software (e.g. WhoIs on p. 73) but generally the discussions are adequate without going into so much detail as to overwhelm the user. The emphasis on research uses is also helpful, in that it provides examples and encourages creativeuses without setting up unrealistic expectations. The reluctant academic might find this just the information needed to help overcome the fear of surfing. Pages: 165    Price: $25.00     ISBN: 0-534-25851-4 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University Hart, Susan. (1996). Beyond Special Needs: Enhancing Children's Learning Through Innovative Thinking. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Hart advocates the use of a five step process she calls innovative thinking to guide teachers in assessing school problems and choosing a course of action. The process involves making connections by looking at the context of the problem behavior; contradicting this negative view by examining the norms that lead to it's perception as problematic; taking a child's eye view to examine their perspective; taking note of the feelings the behavior elicits; and suspending judgment while further resources are explored. This process is a result of a year's study, Hart does not say when, but the bulk of her references are from the 80's and before. This is largely a prescriptive book, little space is devoted to discussion of other approaches or evaluative comparison. Pages: 138    Price: $24.94     ISBN: 1-85396-301-1 Reviewed by Kate Corby, Michigan State University

Dowdy-Kilgour, J. (2008). PhD Stories: Conversations with My Sisters. Reviewed by Ezella McPherson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign

Dowdy-Kilgour, J. (2008). PhD Stories: Conversations with My Sisters. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc. Pp. ix + 134         ISBN 1-5727-3796-4 Reviewed by Ezella McPherson University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign January 9, 2009 Ph.D. Stories: Conversations with My Sisters, by Joanne Kilgour Dowdy, uses storytelling to reveal nine African American women professors and scholars’ stories of survival in the educational institutions from early childhood to graduate school. The book also explores their “strategies to survive and thrive” (p. xi) in a predominantly white institution. While originally from Trinidad, an Afro-Caribbean, Joanne Kilgour Dowdy, has been in the United States for 23 years. The author’s early learning experiences at Julliard School in New York, teaching in Harlem, engaging in research at Atlanta’s Center for the Study of Adult Literacy have allowed her to become “educated in a way to be a black, literate female” (p. 3). She is currently a professor at a predominantly white institution, who is passionate about understanding the experiences of educated Black women. This book is well organized from the beginning by introducing the subjects, black women in the academy, to showing how they have supportive networks while in graduate school and during the tenure process, and ending by discussing how they cool down after reaching their highest potential in their academic careers. The first chapter, Conversations with My Sisters, begins by the author questioning why she is a professor at a predominantly white institution, “alone, in a department, in a school that [is] committed to a Eurocentric educational enterprise” (p. 1). The fact that one Black woman, Mary Jane Patterson earned a bachelor’s degree in 1862, suggested the low educational attainment of Black women in this era. By 1999, Black women faculty members comprised 2.2% of the 4.7% of Black faculty members at predominantly white institutions. This showed the shortage of Black women faculty members in the academy. In prior decades, while in the academy, Black women faculty felt isolated, mismatched for the institution, lacked of support from the institution, and were placed in the position to be the only speaker of color in the department. By desegregating departments, Black women faculty members found themselves to be the only scholar publishing in their area of research and being the only faculty member of color in the building. Currently, Black women represent 1.9% earned doctorates, which further hints at the limited number of black women professors in the academy. The absence of role models, who are Black women, and senior faculty members who earned the doctorate and/or have gone through the tenure process, led the author to engage in this research study. The purpose of the study is to learn more about the ways in which Black women faculty members have been successful by using strategies to navigate through predominantly white institutions. She also wanted to engage in this study to show other Black women that that “it was alright to be Black, female, and literate” (p. 1). In the current study is conducted on a large campus, King University with the participants (e.g. Black women professors, including the author) consisted of nine participants, seven are full-time professors who are married with two children, one business consultant, and one Black woman who is a dean and vice president. Although the Black women in the study worked at the same institution, they did not know each other. They come from different disciplines including, higher education administration (Dee), adult literacy (Kaye), leadership in Arts education (Pat), French language and Caribbean literature in French (Bess), anthropology (Ann), literature (Barbara), political science (Hailey), public health (Kim), and business (Wendy). While they have different disciplines, they share a common philosophy of community service. Since Black faculty members teach in different departments, new Black women faculty members have challenges connecting to the social networks with other Black faculty and staff members at the university. So, Black women faculty members have to personally reach out to other Black faculty members to be considered “connected and valued while earning a living” (p. 2). It is interesting to note that through being a part of the research study, the Black women professors started to “refer to each other as their sister scholars” (p. 7). The author lays out the storytelling research method as a historical and contemporary way to engage in the oral tradition among people of African descent preserving history through telling stories of their lived experiences. The research method of storytelling has the effect of allowing Black women to engage in the meaning of the events through retelling their lived experiences. The oral tradition permits black women to not only tell but interpret their stories in a given historical time period. Storytelling also allows black women to obtain validation, affirmation, and educate others about their experiences while simultaneously engaging in catharsis and refusing to accept oppression. The research methods, including data collection (e.g. audio taped interviews in four different sessions), peer debriefing, member checking, and data analysis (e.g. reviewing transcripts, coding, triangulation) As the name of the title suggests, the next chapter, Character Traits of the Women describes the character traits of black women faculty members in the academy. They are seen as “warriors for social justice, equality for women, student advocacy, and fairness in the workplace” (p. 16). Beginning with early childhood experiences, Black women faculty members aspired to become teachers given their prior training in a nurturing educational environment. They also received encouragement from family members to achieve their highest potential. Characteristics of confidence, integrity, being fair, and serving an advocate allowed these women to maintain a vision towards pursuing their ultimate goals. By taking risks, yearning for knowledge through self-development, being self aware, and overcoming obstacles (e.g., self doubt, medical issues, and grieving over loved ones) and challenges (e.g. negotiating work and raising the family at home, resistance to being leaders in traditionally white positions), these Black women reached the their highest potential and achieve their dreams. Chapter 3, The Ties that Save Us, focuses on the sources of support for the Black women faculty members from early schooling to serving as professors as they navigate through the academic settings. As children, they lived in supportive family environments, with parents, siblings, and relatives who valued education. This support continues throughout college, graduate school, and even in academia. Black women’s support networks include spouses, “family, friends, faculty members, community members, and the students who work with them” (p. 37). There is a need for faculty members to “reach out to new academics and helping them build their support base” (p. 39). The author observes that community members support Black women going through the doctoral process and Black women faculty members in academy. While being an academic for the participants means that they have less time to spend with their husbands, going on sabbatical gives them additional time to devote to their families. Black mothers have to negotiate work and family life. This suggests that they may have to care for a sick child instead of handing out graded papers. Challenges to raising children include spending quality time with the children, changing schools to be near children, being an advocate for their children’s education. This chapter effectively showed how Black women academics’ ties to social networks kept them sane in isolating environments at their predominately white institution. In Chapter 4, Teaching as a calling, the author describes how black women professors are called to teach early, due to a family history of teachers, teaching adult students, working the community, yearning to teach in graduate school, and/or teaching through holding workshops. As teachers, they have aspirations for their students including becoming educators, being responsible and persistent instead of giving up. While in the classroom, they learn from their students, remember to be responsible and caring teachers. By serving as mentors, they guide graduate students through the research process to gain hands on experience, while personally investing in students by being a support system and making sure that students graduate despite familial or personal issues. In serving dual roles as mentors and professors, time management becomes a challenge for these black women, because they have to juggle teaching (e.g. teaching preparation and grading), mentoring, engaging in research, and publishing. These Black women’s stories of going through the journey of teaching show how they have “learn[Ed] from difficult experiences, turn[ed] pain into passion, or [took] out the time to reflect on the importance of failure as a stepping stone” (p. 54). In the next chapter, The writing journey, the author focuses on Black women academics overcoming obstacles in the publication process. Some participants cite one barrier when trying to publish from their dissertation work is that the format for the dissertation misaligned with the format for publication in journal articles. After the dissertation defense, some black women, like Wendy have challenges engaging in the publication process and this leads to them devoting more time to other projects outside of academic publishing, like refining teaching practices, serving on committees, or volunteering in the local community. Black women professors should move from a negative attitude about how their work will be perceived by others and know that everyone’s book or articles get rejected in the beginning of the publication process. Because of this, black women academics should take risks to put their ideas on paper and get reviewed by editors. Managing time becomes an issue for black women professors who publish, due to having to engage multiple projects as teachers, researchers, reviewers of dissertations, writing books, reviews, or journal articles. Some black women professors like Kaye have mastered multitasking through personal motivation as a part of engaging in work in academia. Other professors, like Pat acknowledge the need to set aside some hours to just engage in writing for publication. The writing process for journals consists of “drafting, receiving, and resubmitting their papers for review by journal editors” (p. 65), in addition to revising the paper. By not knowing the publication process, some participants sent their articles to journals, in which the editor rejected their papers. Then they submitted the same paper to a different journal, in which the article was rejected again. During this process, some black women felt as though it would take a longer time to get their work published. The author stressed that it was okay to be defensive upon getting rejected from an editor, due to the fact of the personal investment in the work. One strategy that the participants used upon being rejected from an editor was revisiting the reviewer’s comments some time after the initial rejection and taking their feedback into consideration in a revised version of the article. In the publishing game, it is important to understand “that particular journals suit some writers and their subjects better than others” (p. 66). Another strategy to get published is to “[match] the writing voice with supportive editors and their review board’s vision for that journal” (p. 66). Being rejected multiple times allowed these Black women to acknowledge that their article was actually a mismatch for a journal and journal reviewers. They also realized the need to obtain feedback from others prior to submitting the article, having “a special writing space” (p. 67), a mentor to guide them through the publication process, peers who provide support in them engaging in their “scholar[ly] ideas for research” (p. 67) so that their voices can be heard in wider academic spaces. They also learned that their work did not have to be perfect at the time of submission, but be a good fit for the journal audience and editor. By being patient and keeping the vision, they learned the publication process and disseminated their work for the public to use. Some suggestions that these Black women have for young scholars include; (1) having discussions about their ideas with others in a supportive network; (2) disseminate the work from the research project in the form of an article; (3) having someone review and edit articles before submission; (4) get a mentor to teach them the ropes of publishing; (5) be persistent get the article published; (6) learn how to multitask (e.g., teach, research, attend committee meetings, presenting at conferences); (7) know what is expected for the tenure process (e.g. publications) after accepting the position at a new institution. The participants also suggest that young scholars find supportive networks outside of the academy, including family members and friends. Continuing the conversation about doing work in the academy, the next chapter, Scholarship of the scholars focuses on engaging in scholarship, also referred to as research, teaching, and service in the academy. By completing research projects, black women professors honed their skills in data analysis and reporting the findings to audiences inside and outside of the academy. This scholarship is disseminated to the wider academic world through conference presentations and/or publications (e.g. reports, books, articles) that contribute to the field of her choice and educate others with new perspectives on the issues with voices from participants who are people of color. These Black women professors have learned how to successfully obtain research grants to conduct research and publish, despite obstacles including journal editors who devalue the research done by academics of color using people of color as subjects. Besides research, the author discusses the importance of teaching in the academy. As teachers, they have made it their “mission to challenge their students as thinkers and agents in building a quality of life” (p. 81). In the classroom, they used different pedagogies (e.g. hands on learning, workshops) to present the course materials in a clear and understandable way for students to fully grasp the materials and push the students to the next level via critical thinking. They understand their role as professors to disseminate research to academic audiences while simultaneously having high standards of teaching to students in the classroom. Being advocates for students, they made sure to obtain better services (e.g., access to technology, equipment) for their students to utilize in the classroom. The success of these Black women scholars can be attributed to them holding a philosophy centered on community, “family, caring for others, and embracing their role as leaders/mothers on the campus” (p. 86). They also shared a desire to mentor students through the publication process and distribute the scholarship to younger academics, sharing their experiences with students. The author ends this chapter with a discussion of the service component of scholarship, which involves giving back (e.g. editing journals, organizing conferences, serving on committees, mentoring students) to the academic community. The final chapter, “Cool Under Fire”, sums up the main finding from the study. The author explains that Black women faculty’s character traits support from family and calling to teaching early inspired them to finish the PhD and continue into faculty and administrative positions in the academy and in the business world for Wendy. Some Black women faculty felt disconnected from family members during the doctoral and tenure process, because they were separated from family members by devoting a substantial amount of time to their work in the academy. During these journeys, they received support from family, community members, and mentors which enabled them to persist through the fire when times were rough both inside and outside of the academy. By being Black, female, and philosophers, these Black women committed to educating students and academics, balancing work and family life, and serving the community. Some of the participants learned to cool off after reaching their highest potential by successfully completing the doctorate and navigating through academia to reach tenure as professors. Ph.D. Stories: Conversations with My Sisters contributes to the understanding of the historic and contemporary concerns of Black women in the academy at the graduate level and as professors. It begs the question of how to challenge and even change current practices that isolate Black women in the academy. This body of literature will be of interest to academics who aspire to make the academy more welcoming to Black women faculty members. Black women graduate students navigating through the doctoral programs who intend to become professors and Black women faculty members going through the tenure process will benefit from reading this text as well. Tenured Black women faculty may also gain affirmation of their experiences in the tenure process through reading about the stories told by the participants in the study. Lastly, the text can help academics engage in larger debates and discussions about the doctoral and publication process for people of color and first generation doctoral students and professors in the academy. About the Reviewer Ezella McPherson is a doctoral student in the Department of Educational Policy Studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She is interested in issues of equity and access in K-20 schools. She holds a Bachelor's degree from the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor and a Master's degree in Educational Policy Studies from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, James C.; & Grigorenko, Elena L. (2008) Applied Intelligence. Reviewed by Catherine Scott, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, James C.; & Grigorenko, Elena L. (2008) Applied Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Pp. 432         ISBN 978-0-521-71121-0 Reviewed by Catherine Scott Swinburne University of Technology, Australia January 9, 2009 A new book by Robert Sternberg is an event to look forward to. The latest, Applied Intelligence, written with James C. Kaufman and Elena L. Grigorenko, is a text intended for undergraduate and graduate students, and as such it is written in a style that is exceptionally accessible. Moreover, the book is thorough in its coverage, well structured, and potentially very useful for anyone looking for a good source of up-to-date information on the state of the science of theorising about and measuring cognitive capacity. Intelligence as a topic of interest seems an obvious focus to those of us reared in the Western cultural tradition. A vast industry exists in developing, testing, and refining measures of cognitive ability, and publishing about related issues. However, while for many, devising ways to assess an individual’s cognitive capacity is essential, to other interested observers the whole notion of intelligence seems a tyrannical imposition. For a considerable number of classroom practitioners and those who teach and advise them, for example, the use of standardised tests of student ability is to be resisted. The "bad name" that intelligence tests have can be better understood by looking a little closer at dominant models of human capacity. Carol Dweck (to whom Robert Sternberg and his co-authors refer in the book reviewed here) and her colleagues propose that people conceptualise human attributes, intelligence included, as either entities (fixed traits probably present from birth and biologically based) or processes (malleable qualities that can be influenced and shaped by effort and experience). English-speaking cultures are dominated by entity theories of intelligence, which imply that children are born with a fixed quantum of ability that is resistant to environmental influences. The whole notion of a test to measure intelligence implies a bounded "thing" rather than dynamic process. The model of attributes as entities seems to be particularly dominant in individualist cultures, such as our own, which undoubtedly goes a long way to explain the success of the "IQ industry" in Anglophone countries. For many educators, whose work is concerned with nurturing the individual development of their students, this "theory of limits" is most unpalatable. This is particularly so in those cases where theories of intelligence have been used to "write off" whole groups as "less able" than others, with the most notorious being attempts to rank ability by "race." In contrast those who subscribe to process models of human attributes emphasise the importance of hard work and good teaching in the development of human capacity and in this many educators find a more congenial model, one of human possibilities rather than limits. Sternberg has spent his eminent career researching and advocating for alternative conceptions of intelligence to the mainstream psychometric (entity) model. The first conceptually sound measures of "IQ" were developed in France by Binet and Simon with a specific purpose in mind, that of screening children to see which would not benefit from ordinary classroom instruction but would need special educational provision. Intelligence tests started out as reliable predictors of performance in school and remain that to this day. Sternberg has always recognised this limitation of the original tests and their later derivatives and so his theories stress the importance of conceptions of intelligence that are more than measures of "school savviness" and instead relate to life beyond the classroom. After a brief but comprehensive summary of the major traditions in intelligence theory, Sternberg and his co-authors devote the remainder of the book to their own theory of and research into intelligence "beyond the classroom." Sternberg’s theorising and research have centred on three aspects of human performance: first, mental components; second, performance of real world tasks, especially as this relates to handling novelty and achieving automaticity of performance, and third, the individual’s capacity to adapt to, shape, or select environments. The theory also goes beyond emphasis on the individual person and explores the contribution of culture to intelligent performance, via exploring which aspects of intelligence are universal and which aspects are culturally relative. The book, however, does not merely explicate the theory but features chapters on key components of the theory that include information on how to use this knowledge to make one’s own behaviour more intelligent; how, for instance, to improve meta-cognitive aspects of decision-making, such as problem definition, strategy selection, and performance monitoring to improve the quality of one’s daily life. Sternberg’s inclusion of these sorts of examples and the related practice problems has always made his writing on intelligence particularly engaging. Certainly doing the exercises leads to the definite sensation of "getting smarter," something that can not always be said of wading through the average psychology text! And the discernible improvement in problem solving also provides powerful support for the fluidity of intelligence, that is, the validity of process models of human capacity. For those schooled in Vygotskyan models of human cognition, Sternberg’s theory does not go far enough in acknowledging the role of culture in the development of the human mind. "Aspects" of intelligence such as discussed by Sternberg can be conceptualised as being the mental tools/processes that form a central part of Vygotsky’s theory. Vygotsky proposed that the higher mental functions, for example focused attention, develop out of the biologically based lower or elementary mental functions. The process of development is shaped via what Rogoff (1990) refers to as "apprenticeships in thinking," that is, via learners’ participation in interactions with more experienced and knowledgeable members of one’s culture, which result in the learner’s internalising the culture’s mental toolkit. The end products of this apprenticeship are inevitably cultural in character, rather than biological, universal, and invariant. Work by Rogoff (2003) and her collaborators has demonstrated that mental functions such as attention, which seem universal in structure and function—and are portrayed as such by cognitive processing models—vary in form and function between cultures. Referring, as Sternberg does, to components of intelligence, could be seen to regress to the cultural tendency to resort to entities to explain human behaviour, where processes might be a better, more flexible, and inclusive model. Language, regrettably, becomes a prison when we try to deal with the very abstract, the "matter" of mind included. One small criticism I could make arises from the nature of textbooks generally. Those who write them are constrained by the necessity to mention everything relevant to the topic being covered and to assume a stance of fairness or impartiality towards all sides of the inevitable conflicts or debates. Sternberg and his coauthors avoid some of the worst excesses, for example in their coverage of the immensely popular theories of Howard Gardner. The theories are well-summarised and the important observation not omitted from discussion of them that there is little evidence for the existence of the modular structure of the brain predicted by the theory. Getting the materialist monkey off one’s back proves a little harder, however. It is simultaneously absolutely and undeniably true and profoundly contentious that the brain forms the substrate for human mentality. Absolutely true because without a brain there is no mental activity and the substrates of that activity can increasingly be located and identified. However, what is contentious is whether the characteristics of the neurological substrate are the cause or the correlates of mental activity, that is, on the basis of the current evidence it is possible to argue that learning, experience and practice shape the brain at least as much as they are shaped by it (Heilman, 2002). From my perspective, Sternberg, Kaufman and Grigorenko give maybe more credit to biological theories of intelligence than the evidence warrants. As an example, they cite without comment Matarazzo’s assertion that clinically useful psycho-physiological measures of intelligence will be available "very soon." The prediction was, however, made in 1992 and 16 years is a long time in physiology: many major advances in other areas of physiological research have been made in the interim. Similarly, work reported on metabolic efficiency theories dates to the early 1990s and failure to find more recent research in the area would suggest that too was a theoretical dead end. Another important piece of evidence against materialist models of intelligence not covered in depth by the book is the failure to find the "gene for" intelligence, despite the mapping of the human genome. Careful searching has found a large number of genes that all appear to contribute a very small part of the variance in individual IQ. Given our passion for entities, especially the ultimate entity of the gene, the search will undoubtedly continue in the face of these—discouraging or encouraging depending on one’s perspective—results. Criticism of Sternberg, Kaufman and Grigorenko’s book is in one sense too easy, given the breadth of its coverage. It remains a very worthwhile addition to the armory of those who seek to educate their students properly—as opposed to letting platitudes and clichés do the talking—about the concept of intelligence, its history and the applicability to daily life of many of the research findings it has generated. References Heilman, Kenneth M. (2002) Matter of Mind: A Neurologist's View of Brain-Behavior Relationships Oxford University Press (OUP) Rogoff, B., (1990) Apprenticeships in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York, Oxford University Press. Rogoff, B. (2003) The cultural nature of human development. New York: Oxford University Press. About the Reviewer Dr Catherine Scott, Swinburne Professional Learning, Swinburne University of Technology, Po Box 218, Hawthorn Vic. 3122 Australia E-mail: clscott@swin.edu.au

Bjork, C., Johnston, D. K., and Ross, H. (Eds.) (2007). Taking teaching seriously: How liberal arts colleges prepare teachers to meet today’s educational challenges in schools. Reviewed by Kimberly A. Eversman, Arizona State University

Bjork, C., Johnston, D. K., and Ross, H. (Eds.) (2007). Taking teaching seriously: How liberal arts colleges prepare teachers to meet today’s educational challenges in schools. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers

Pp. 250         ISBN 978-1-59451-364-0

Reviewed by Kimberly A. Eversman
Arizona State University

January 23, 2009

Taking Teaching Seriously is a collection of essays edited by Christopher Bjork, D. Kay Johnston, and Heidi Ross that examine the role liberal arts colleges play in teacher preparation. The book is broken into three parts, each examining a different aspect of the role liberal arts institutions play in current teacher education reform.

In the foreword to the book, Kenneth M. Zeichner writes, “more and more teachers are being prepared to teach in the United States outside of the higher education system that has been responsible for the bulk of pre-service teacher education in the U.S. for over 150 years” (p. ix). No Child Left Behind has raised the call “for a teacher education system that prepares teachers who are ‘good enough’ to follow a scripted curriculum aligned with standards and standardized tests” (Zeichner in Bjork, et al., 2007, p. ix). However, if we, as a society, believe that student learning should extend beyond the meeting of standards and the acquisition of high scores on standardized tests, the teacher who is simply “good enough” isn’t “good enough.” In Taking Teaching Seriously, the authors contend that liberal arts institutions are preparing educators to participate in our ever-changing education system by:

…educating teachers to be able to reflect upon and learn from their experience and to be able to exercise their judgment in the classroom to adapt their teaching to meet the diverse and ever changing needs of their students (p. x).

The authors of Taking Teaching Seriously ask that the reader examine the fundamental purposes of education in a democracy and consider how liberal arts institutions prepare teachers who will encourage young learners to be critically thinking, active participants in a democratic society. They argue that liberal arts colleges have long been unappreciated for the role they play in preparing future teachers. By encouraging new conversations about teacher education programs at liberal arts institutions, the authors try to rectify this situation.

In part one, the authors discuss various views of effectiveness and professionalism in liberal arts undergraduate institutions. Authors contributing to this section include Christopher Bjork, D. Kay Johnston, Heidi Ross, and Irving Epstein. They raise several questions:

What types of professional knowledge should be emphasized during pre- professional preparation? Which factors support and impede an institution’s ability to cultivate effective teachers? What kind of an impact is the current political environment having on education departments and programs in liberal arts institutions? (p. 5).

All three essays in part one address the current need for pre-service teachers who are able to look at the world beyond their immediate institutional contexts; are able to think critically; are flexible in their instructional practices; have experience in the field that, while grounded in theory, is also backed by practice; and have developed attitudes that drive them to improve the schools they are working in. Many of the authors claim that the national debate about education has managed to reduce education down to a narrow focus on testable standards. Johnston and Ross write,

…standards discourse obscures what in fact should be out primary conversation-the purposes of education. Separated from sustained debate about the ends of education, our public conversation about high standards has been narrow, instrumentally conceived, and isolated from the diverse needs and resources of communities. (p.7)

This narrow view, they argue, is moving focus away from educating everyone to be members of a democratic community. The current standards movement, they argue, favors a neoliberal view of learners as future laborers for global capitalism. The authors suggest that conversations about the purpose of education and who should benefit from said education remain central to the debate about education reform.

Christopher Bjork addresses intellectual dispositions of those who chose to enter the field of teaching. In the current climate of teacher education reform, many have argued that the most important attribute of a new teacher is intelligence. This conjecture fuels the call to relax certification standards for new teachers and promotes the push for alternative certification programs such as Teach for America. Others take the opposite view, calling for teacher education to be confined to the graduate level. Bjork argues that effective teachers should be “both intellectually capable of handling the challenges of teaching and pedagogically prepared to translate their goals into effective classroom practice” (p.12).

Students who graduate from liberal arts teacher education programs are likely to fit the descriptions of effective instructors put forward by proponents of a range of reform proposals. With rigorous academic preparation and extensive classroom experience, they meet the qualifications endorsed by both the “professionalization” and “deregulation” proponents. (p. 28)

The essays in part two examine the distinctive approaches of liberal arts institutions. This section commands the larger part of the book and is made up of essays by Alice Lesnick, Jody Cohen, Alison Cook-Sather, Lisa Smulyan, D. Kay Johnston, Vicki Kubler LaBoskey, Linda R. Kroll, and Heidi Ross. These authors shift their focus to the structures and basic foundations of liberal arts teacher education programs. They also examine the impact these programs have had on teachers who graduate from such institutions. They look at how liberal arts teacher training programs “influence their interactions with students, the principles that guide the teacher education programs they oversee, and the types of teachers they hope to produce” (p. 51). The authors contend that liberal arts institutions are educating future teachers to be flexible, critical thinking human beings who are dedicated to social justice. These teachers are risk takers who are prepared to challenge their future students also to be risk takers. In their chapter, Lesnick, Cohen, and Cook-Sather write:

Adherence to transmission based pedagogy, increasing standardization of curricula and assessments…stand as features of the current educational landscape that we strongly oppose, while culturally relevant pedagogy, differentiated instruction, and community-based research all stand as contemporary models informing our work. Ongoing negotiation of these uncomfortable and productive tensions provides us a nexus for the preparation of strong, thoughtful educators (p. 58).

Finally, in part three, Christopher Roelke, Jennifer King Rice, Susan Riemer Sacks, and Charlotte Mendoza address recruiting and retention challenges facing schools around the country. The authors propose that liberal arts institutions are uniquely positioned to help overcome these challenges. In their chapter, Christopher Roellke and Jennifer King Rice (2007) write:

The key curricular challenge for teacher educators in liberal arts institutions, it seems, is to develop intellectually rigorous courses that integrate broader content and critical thinking skills with practical, hands-on pedagogical training…it would make sense for administrators working in urban schools to include liberal arts schools among the institutions they regularly rely on/turn to when searching for new teachers (p.171).

Based on the studies presented in part three, a recurring theme is that teachers who come from liberal arts institutions exhibit certain dispositions that are highly valued in the field. These graduates are intelligent, dedicated, critical thinking individuals who are able to navigate in constantly changing and challenging environments.

[O]utstanding teachers do more than simply carry out their work according to the specifications of their superiors or evaluators. Rather, they make the process of closely observing, assessing, and improving their actions an integral part of their daily lives in classrooms (p. 218).

My opinions about the thesis of Taking Teaching Seriously may be influenced by the fact that I completed a teacher education program at a small, private, Lutheran, liberal arts college in a small town in Iowa. My particular experience echoes the experiences shared by the teachers in this book. I, too, was encouraged to be a critical thinker and to question everything. I worked outside of the college community and was able to meld the theories I had studied with actual practice. I was encouraged to reflect on my practice and grow and develop as a future teacher.

Liberal arts institutions do indeed produce spectacular teacher candidates. However, public universities produce wonderful teachers as well. The problem with this study is that the authors only looked at a few liberal arts programs. The question remains whether these experiences truly are limited to liberal arts programs or are even more prominent there. The authors of this book are on the right track in encouraging more conversations about what education in a democratic society should look like. They provide the reader with much to consider. However, more liberal arts institutions need to be studied before any claims are made about their unique contributions to teacher education.

About the Reviewer

Kimberly A. Eversman is a PhD student in the Educational Leadership and Policy program at Arizona State University. She holds an MA in Curriculum and Instruction from the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota. She also has six years of classroom experience. Her general areas of interest include democratic learning communities, critical pedagogy, and social justice education.

Noddings, Nel. (2007). Critical Lessons: What Our Schools Should Teach. Reviewed by Emily Ackman, Arizona State University

Noddings, Nel. (2007). Critical Lessons: What Our Schools Should Teach. NY: Cambridge University Press Pp. 319         ISBN 978-0521851886 Reviewed by Emily Ackman Arizona State University February 6, 2009 In her newest book, Critical Lessons: What Our Schools Should Teach, Nel Noddings takes a critical look at critical thinking and it’s lack of a role in public schools. Straight from the beginning of the book she chastises the current system for, “the neglect of topics that call forth critical and reflective thinking.” (p.2) The basis of her critique is that our current system of education does not help students prepare for the world they are entering because they are not taught necessary critical thinking skills in school. She argues both that what students are learning and the way in which they are expected to learn information in school is inadequate and outdated. “The contemporary school curriculum in America is obsolete – very near useless for current life.” (p. 205) Noddings begins in the Introduction by asking the reader to turn a critical eye on learning, education and the role each play, or should play, in self-understanding. “In an important sense, this entire book is about self-understanding and an examination of how external and internal forces affect out [sic] lives.” (p. 10) While traveling through each subsequent discussion topic, she makes sure to return to self-understanding, how this issue relates, and how it could potentially be incorporated into a public high school curriculum. After self-understanding, the reader is asked to look outward. The psychology of war is examined. This includes the havoc it wreaks on the psyche of young America in a variety of ways. Noddings then jumps to the topic of relations with other people by exploring homemaking, family, relationships, socialization, and how our interactions matter in each of these contexts. The book then turns to more general human interactions. Nature, advertising, gender, wage earning and religion are all explored in separate chapters, with their interrelation shown throughout. She finishes the book with a strong critique of the current K-12 curriculum as well as the way in which teachers are educated in this country, arguing, “not only should the curriculum be changed, but the ways of learning it should also change.” (p. 284) As someone who was always more motivated in school to learn than to get good grades, the first chapter spoke to me on a personal level and provides me with an explanation for my desire to continue my education beyond the point where many people stop. She asks the question, what does motivate us and what should motivate us when it comes to learning? One answer is that it is basic to human nature that there are things we must concentrate on that hold more interest to us than others. “My advice to students: Don’t ‘do your best in everything.’ Do an adequate job on what is required and save your energy for that about which you are passionate.” (p. 22) Noddings deserves respect for the honesty with which she approaches this subject. Few educators at any level would be brave enough to make such a statement. In the second chapter, Noddings examines the psychology of war. The basis of her critique is that war as a topic is always broached in schools in a historical social studies context, but rarely are students challenged to think critically about war and the psychological toll it takes on combatants. Her stance aside, this chapter seems out of place in this book. There is a flow throughout the general topics that begins with self, leading to immediate relationships, and expanding out into more general human interactions. This topic, while riveting, does not truly fit into any of these three broad categories and thus may throw the reader off-course. In the following chapter, the reader must make the jump to everyday life – discussing the people encountered on a daily basis and their roles they play in the reader’s life. These chapters seem most in-line with Noddings’ previous works. Still, she brings a critical eye to them, which I have not experienced in her writing previously. She makes the point that, “few of us use academic mathematics as adults, but most of us become parents. Yet our schools… rarely offer serious courses on parenting.” (p. 119) Acknowledging there are potential class discrimination issues associated with the possibility of teaching parenting in school, she argues that if it is examined critically as a topic, these problems are much less likely. This particular section is reminiscent of the Harlem Children’s Zone – a non-profit in New York City. One of the programs there is called the Baby College where one of the stated intentions is to teach middle-class parenting skills to inner-city parents; (Barnes, 2002) not values but skills. Barack Obama has lauded this program as a model he hopes to implement nation-wide. This is a concrete example that ideas can be translated into practice, but it must be done thoughtfully. The chapter on advertising and propaganda is reason enough for anyone to purchase this book. Noddings is critical of “the rise of a consumers’ republic – one that defines citizenship more in terms of consumption than of civic action.” (p. 170) She speaks of SUV’s air pollution, advertisers harnessing peer-pressure, and planned obsolescence – topics of which most thoughtful consumer are aware. But it is the subsection on health & advertising that is most enlightening. Reading intently with Adderall-induced concentration, I looked through Noddings’ critical eye at the pharmaceutical industry and the toll its systematic misrepresentation has taken on this country. The problem is the pervasiveness of influence. Once it became legal for prescription drugs to be advertised on television, the advertising budgets skyrocketed for these companies – resulting in an increase in demand for name-brand medication. In examining some of the reasons people turn to prescription drugs, it is pointed out that turning to illicit drugs for these exact same reasons is considered illegal. She argues that one of the biggest con-jobs the pharmaceutical industry has managed to pull on U.S. citizens is convincing them that improvements in drugs have played a major role in longevity, whereas the reality has more to do with improvements in sanitation. To expand on this point, she states: “The single most important move we could make globally to increase health would be to ensure a safe water supply for all of the world’s people.” (p. 184) U.S. citizens are also under the impression that the scientists who create these drugs are wise critical thinkers immune to political and social pressures. This is a blatant falsehood. Noddings points out that the extent to which our collective thinking has been warped by this industry is dangerous to the nation as individuals and as a society. Noddings uses advertising and propaganda as a doorway into looking at the self in a larger context. Gender, religion and making a living are examined and interwoven as topics that are often critically examined at the collegiate level, but basically ignored in high school curricula. She argues that this does great harm to students by allowing stereotypes to fester and the inappropriate influence of business interests to be maintained in public schools. The book ends by examining teacher education in this country. The accusation is made that “most teachers are not critical thinkers because they have not been asked to think critically” (p. 9) in their own education. As is reiterated throughout the book, sweeping changes need to be made to the K-12 curriculum, but this will be putting the cart before the horse if teacher education is not also revamped. This might be where Noddings’s arguments are weakest. She readily acknowledges that for high school students to be able to critically interrelate many of the topics discussed in the book, their teachers need to have a solid grasp not just of the curriculum that they are teaching, but also of every academic topic that might relate. Even for those who agree with the position that teacher education needs to change, this idea seems unrealistic. Throughout the book, Noddings makes it quite clear that the current academic curriculum is irrelevant to society today and must be changed dramatically to successfully prepare students for the world into which they are entering. “To neglect critical thinking on topics central to everyday life is to make the word education virtually meaningless.” (p. 4) She offers questions teachers can pose to their students that might inspire critical thinking on a given topic. Unfortunately, she does not offer tangible suggestions for how education policy-makers might go about creating the changes that are so necessary. Overall, this book made a lot of good points. I was excited to see that there are still opportunities to look at these issues in a fresh light. Although I agree that major change needs to be made in public school curricula, I was disappointed that no suggestions were made about how to go about doing this. Understandably, Noddings is an educator and not a policy-maker. But when dramatic change is called for, potential paths to this change should be examined in addition to learning why. Reference Barnes, K. (2002) The Baby College. Harlem Children’s Zone: A Look Inside, 1 (1). Retrieved October 10, 2008, from http://www.hcz.org/programs/the-hcz-project#baby_college About the Reviewer Emily Ackman is currently working on her Ph.D. in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Arizona State University’s Mary-Lou Fulton College of Education. She holds two Master of Education degrees – one from the University of Georgia in Administration & Policy and the second from Teachers College at Columbia University in Politics & Education. She is fascinated by politics and the law and the role each plays in public education.

Sternberg, Robert J. and Sternberg, Karin. (2008) The Nature of Hate. Reviewed by Catherine Scott , Swinburne University of Technology

Sternberg, Robert J. and Sternberg, Karin. (2008) The Nature of Hate. NY: Cambridge University Press Pp. 246         ISBN 978-0-521-72179-0 Reviewed by Catherine Scott Swinburne University of Technology February 6, 2009 In the annals of human civilisation our own era will probably go down as one of the bloodiest and most vicious. The sheer number of ‘genocides’ that have been committed since the turn of the nineteenth century and the associated body count beggar belief. The most notorious, the Holocaust, spawned a spate of psychological research into the causes of that terrible event, in the hope of preventing its repetition. This included the research by Adorno and his colleagues into the authoritarian personality; Kohlberg’s work on moral development; Milgram’s research into obedience and, most recently, the research by Robert Sternberg into hate. Sternberg and Sternberg’s book provides a good summary of the research and theory on hate to date, before presenting and elaborating on Robert Sternberg’s duplex theory of hate and summarising the research evidence for it. The book also covers many of the best-known collective degenerations into hate and their apparent causes, including some of the most notorious recent genocides in Rwanda, Sudan and the Balkans. There is a sense in the book, however, that, the demon being wrestled with has still not been entirely subdued, or at least, understood. The many and varied examples of people’s sometimes violent aversion to one or even many of the members own species are not in the end resolved into a convincing whole. Wittgenstein’s observation about the sources of ‘philosophical bewilderment’ is of potential use for understanding the unresolved complexities revealed by Sternberg and Sternberg’s discussion of hate: ‘We are up against one of the great sources of philosophical bewilderment: a substantive makes us look for a thing that corresponds to it’ (cited in Lazerowitz, 2004, p. 162). The word ‘hate’ does suggest the existence of a unitary phenomenon, as does our experience of our own strong ill-feeling towards others, either as individuals or groups. Sternberg and Sternberg are on to something when they observe that people say they hate everything from homework to individuals who have grievously wronged them in some way to abstract entities, like members of some category of person, but that surely these diverse experiences can not be identical in content and intensity. ‘Hate’ like most or all concepts, is ‘fuzzy’, that is, there are no clear cut boundaries around it nor a set of attributes that are all present in every case of it: as with all concepts, membership is determined by ‘family resemblances’ (Rosch, 1999). There are, in other words, a collection of attributes that are characteristic of people’s experiences of hate but no experience of hate, whether of homework or members of some despised ethnic group, necessarily includes all or even most characteristics. Sternberg’s duplex theory of hate, with its three components, could be styled as an investigation of the fuzzy concept of ‘hate’. It is, in other words, a study of how people think and talk about hate. As such it is of value and interest. In the end, however, the experience of strong personal enmity by one individual to another is substantially different to mass hatred and murder. It may have been desirable to explore these phenomena separately rather than as manifestations of one human tendency. The ultimate purpose of the book is search for a way to ‘cure hate’. Because such a wide variety of phenomena is covered it is unlikely that there exists one panacea that will cure them all. Certainly therapy may help those individuals who are afflicted with a propensity to hate or so maimed by experience that they descend into hate but hate that comes from collective causes may be much harder to stifle. As an example, the strong temptation for leaders to cook up an external threat to distract followers from problems on the home front will not be cured by therapy of any sort: only the development of a polity sufficiently well-fed and secure, as well as too sophisticated to fall for such tricks, will eradicate that source of manufactured hate. Certainly the eradication of injustice and inequality in all their guises would remove a powerful incentive to loathing one’s fellows, especially those who seem to be better off than oneself. The apparently universal narrative of ‘pure evil’ besetting ‘blameless victims’ that Baumeister so thoroughly explores (1996) will always be available as a means to explain why the other is bestial and fit only for extermination. Collective approaches that address the root causes of division between peoples may ultimately the best cure for mass hate but we are still drawn towards explanations and interventions that begin at the individual level. Indeed, Western psychology as an enterprise is strongly individualist in its emphasis, not surprising, given that individualism is the dominant belief system/model of the person in Western cultures. Psychology starts with the individual as an explanatory variable and sometimes adds other aspects of the situation in its attempts to account for human behaviour. Such a ‘bottom up’ model constantly runs into problems, however, as Sternberg and Sternberg’s analysis reveals. More convincing explanations for human behaviour become possible when the bias towards starting with the individual is put aside and ‘top down’ influences are investigated as primary causes instead of add-ons, with one, one top down variable particularly implicated in the bloody nature of our age. Anthropologist Mary Douglas has explored the key role of culture in human conduct and has written about the catastrophic effects of cultural failure, when the usual vibrant conversation between the four cultural tendencies that she describes in her grid/group theory falls silent, ordinary life ceases and human society degenerates into the sort of nightmare Hobbes envisioned (Douglas, 2004). The key cause over the last century and more of cultural failure – the disintegration of everyday life - has been war. Wars have gone from events that affected mostly military personnel to being an assault upon whole populations. Starting in the mid-nineteenth century, each subsequent war saw civilian deaths accounting for higher and higher percentages of the casualty figures. The ‘evolution’ of weapons from devices used at close or relatively close quarters and capable of inflicting injury on one or a few persons to implements able to destroy a great number of people from a considerable distance undoubtedly contributed to war’s breaking out of the battle fields and into the realm of ordinary life, a development Sternberg and Sternberg comment upon. The disruption or total destruction on of normal existence by the intrusion of death and horror on a massive scale is sufficient to explain the degeneration of human behaviour into viciousness. There is nothing special lurking in our genes or our natures that explains hatred on a grand scale and the murder that follows it nearly so well as the reactions of ordinary people to extraordinary circumstances. When horror becomes the norm it is not surprising that it is reflected in the conduct of those afflicted by horrible situations. What would need explaining is a circumstance where people could see their cities destroyed, their homes, businesses and farms ruined, their loved ones and neighbours murdered and mutilated and simply go about their ordinary business. Sternberg and Sternberg provide evidence for this in their book when they report on how the war to remove Saddam Hussein resulted in an upsurge of sectarian hatred between Sunni and Shiite and of both groups towards the invading forces. Brutality in the form of suicide bombings and attacks on civilians increased. Without the experience of a war conducted at close quarters it highly unlikely that ordinary Iraqis, or indeed anyone, would voluntarily descend into slaughtering their fellows. Our age is the age of genocide because our age is the era of total war. Remove war or at least remove it from the cities and villages in which people reside, I would contend, and the wave of mass murder would also decline. This is one powerful method to cure hate, but one, unfortunately, that lies well beyond the capacity of any individual, therapist or otherwise. Sternberg and Sternberg are to be commended for staring horror in the face and attempting to understand with the laudable purpose of ridding the world of hate and its consequences. References Douglas, M. ‘Traditional Culture–Let’s Hear No More About It’ inRao, V. and M. Walton(Ed.)Culture and Public Action, Stanford University Press Heilman, Kenneth M. (2002) Matter of Mind: A Neurologist's View of Brain-Behavior Relationships Oxford University Press (OUP) Lazerowitz, Morris (2004) Philosophy and Illusion London: Routledge. Rosch, E. (1999). What are concepts? Contemporary Psychology, 44, 416-417. About the Reviewer Dr Catherine Scott, Swinburne Professional Learning, Swinburne University of Technology, PO Box 218, Hawthorn Vic. 3122 Australia