Pp. xvi + 384 ISBN 978-1-59385-654-0
Reviewed by Sarah Knox Morley
University of New Mexico
October 22, 2008
Literacy Processes: Cognitive Flexibility in Learning and Teaching melds current research in cognitive development with literacy learning and teaching. Edited by Kelly B. Cartwright, this book covers both theory and application involving a wide range of readers throughout the lifespan. Although the primary audience of this book appears to be elementary teachers and those teaching reading skills, several chapters specifically address adult learners while others, geared toward literacy in younger students, provide workable cognitive strategies that could be adapted for readers of all ages. There is much here to be recommended to those studying cognitive and developmental psychology in addition to those involved with teaching at every level. Intersecting the fields of literacy and educational psychology, this text covers theory, research, and practical applications. Non-specialists may find the level of detail in a few of the chapters difficult to comprehend but even those not involved in literacy instruction will find the majority of the text provides information about cognitive development and literacy in understandable terms. Approximately half the chapters cover material specifically related to young or beginning readers while the remaining are geared toward adolescent or expert readers and educators. Overall, the text exhibits a balance between research and practice with useful ideas for either area.
Divided into four sections, the text begins with an overview of theoretical considerations related to cognitive development in the literacy domain. The second and third sections of the book cover cognitive flexibility associated with word-level and comprehension processes. The final section provides information on effective instructional practices for use in developing or encouraging cognitive strategies employed in reading. Each chapter presents current research in a specific area, providing both detailed examples for use in the classroom and information about specific studies.
The introductory chapter by Cartwright describes both historical and contemporary principles of cognitive development, particularly the importance of multiple mental representations in the act of reading. Research shows representational capabilities develop throughout the life span, requiring both developmental maturity and flexibility of thinking. The ability to read well is based upon the complex ability to process different types of information simultaneously. Stressing the interconnection between cognitive development and literacy learning and instruction, Cartwright suggests continued discussion between the two disciplines would not only further our knowledge about cognition and literacy but would also create better student outcomes through better instruction.
In the second chapter, Bruce D. Homer and Elizabeth O. Hayward focus on the early development of cognition and representational thinking. The authors provide an overview of developmental changes in linguistic ability from infancy to early childhood, moving from concrete to abstract thinking. Experiments show infants as young as 3 ½ months have the ability to mentally represent concrete objects thus refuting previous research by Piaget who believed this ability was not present until nine months of age. Aided by image schemas and increasing socio-spatial abilities, representational thinking develops from simple mental representations to more complex symbolic representations. Children between the ages of three and five are developmentally more capable of holding an increased amount of information in memory and have more experience and familiarity with symbolic representation. Language development advances representational thought through internal and external communication of ideas and beliefs. The development of cognitive flexibility, allowing “simultaneously multiple, or even conflicting, representations of the same object or event” (p.32) is made possible through language acquisition. As they develop language skills (e.g. speaking, reading, writing), children increase their cognitive abilities. The authors suggest the relationship between literacy and cognition requires a broader theoretical analysis not limited strictly to a language skills perspective.
Moving beyond childhood, Jan D. Sinnott in Chapter Three explores cognitive and representational development in the adult explaining that children and very young adults store information and “rules” for future use while adults choose “truth” based upon experience and knowing. Adults continue to experience cognitive and representational development but in more qualitative ways than the quantitative aspects seen in children. Adults are more concerned with learning that connects their social, emotional, and experiential selves. These changes have implications for adult learning and teaching that include incorporating methods for fostering post formal thinking and making connections between what is being learned and the adult who is doing the learning. When creating the adult learning environment, literacy instructors are urged to take into account multiple perspectives and theoretical lenses while offering a variety of teaching activities and methods that fit the goals for each student. Sinnott offers two examples of teaching adults. One example relates a teaching failure the author experienced because she didn’t take into account the developmental needs of her students. The second example provides a classroom activity designed to involve students in learning about post formal thought.
Section II of the text begins coverage of word-level processes. In Chapter Four, authors M. Jeffrey Farrar and Sylvia Ashwell discuss phonological awareness in relation to young children’s metalinguistic development. The ability to hear the structure of language (phonology) emerges during the pre-school years and is thought to play a key role in the development of reading. This chapter examines the relationship of language, particularly rhyming, cognitive skills, and theory of mind understanding in preschool children. Theory of Mind (TOM) is a developmental milestone in representational thinking. Beginning around age five, a child has the capability of taking on the perspective of others, understanding the difference between belief and reality. This ability to see differences from another’s perspective, also called “false belief reasoning”, is associated with rhyming ability in that the child must be able to handle conflicting representations. Rhyming, as a phonological awareness skill, requires cognitive flexibility because the child must ignore the meaning of the word and attend only to the sound. The authors conducted research examining semantic and non-semantic rhyming tasks in relationship to theory of mind tasks. In addition, executive function was measured to study whether or not the participants actively inhibited a response to word meaning. This research illustrates rhyming ability is predicted by vocabulary and theory of mind understanding but more research is needed to determine causal direction as well as relationships with other phonological awareness skills.
Chapter Five, by Irene W. Gaskins, examines beginning and struggling readers and the way in which cognitive flexibility is developed in word reading. Gaskins outlines the four phases of reading development and four ways of learning to read beginning with visual cues (pre-alphabetic). From here development of reading skills moves to a partial alphabetic phase where the early reader might recognize but not use all the letter-sound information available. Noticing and remembering letter-sound patterns during the full alphabetic phase assists the reader in the ability to decode words. The consolidated alphabetic phase, the final and most efficient phase, takes place when the reader is able to incorporate letter-sound matches in addition to remembering other matches between multi-letter and syllabic units. The ability to read depends upon the reader’s developmental level, background knowledge, the complexity of the word being read, and the context within which the word is found. Learning to read includes contextual guessing, letter-sound decoding, analogy, and sight. Gaskins notes successful readers use each of these strategies, sometimes in combination, whereas less successful readers tend to use one strategy and give up if not successful. Readers need to be specifically taught how to utilize the various methods, be given opportunities to practice, and use scaffolding to reach the next phase in development. The author shares instructional examples from her work with struggling readers.
In Chapter Six, the focus is on word reading flexibility and its contribution to reading acquisition and fluency. Flexibility, as defined by authors Virginia W. Berninger and William E. Nagy, incorporates the ability to reconcile myriad representations, to map between and across levels of language, to make connections based on similarities of words, and to connect aspects of the aural-oral and written systems. Because learning to read is a complex process, readers need both flexibility and fluency. Flexibility can be enhanced through teaching derivatives and word forms which assist in identification and understanding of words. Other strategies include word reading in and out of context and teaching metalinguistic awareness rather than drills for learning rules. While skilled readers have the ability to rapidly process single words (automaticity) and multiple words (fluency) there is some question as to how each contributes to reading comprehension and at what developmental stage. Some cognitive scientists studying automatic and controlled processing now believe different neural pathways may be involved in the two processes. In the field of reading instruction, these findings seem to call into question the past importance of automatic word reading. According to the authors, flexibility and fluency play important roles in reading comprehension operating in parallel throughout the course of reading development.
While acknowledging multiple features are required for skillful reading, the authors of Chapter Seven consider the coordination of two specific features, phonology (sound) and semantics (meaning) necessary for improving reading comprehension. Researching graphophonological-semantic flexibility across different age groups, Kelly B. Cartwright, Melinda D. Hodgkins, and Marisa C. Isaac report flexibility varies by individual, develops across the lifespan, and is domain specific. Beginning and struggling readers, unable to consider multiple aspects of print, tend to concentrate on printed symbols without processing the meaning. Decoding tasks take precedence over meaning and understanding. Flexible readers, on the other hand, attend to print features and meaning simultaneously. Research shows even when vocabulary knowledge is high inflexible readers score lower on comprehension than flexible readers with low vocabulary knowledge. Stating flexibility tasks can be taught, the authors provide a multidimensional card sorting example as illustration. Descriptions of studies performed with beginning, intermediate, and skilled readers are included in this chapter as are suggestions for future research.
Part III of this book moves beyond word level processes to focus on comprehension. Michael Pressley and Mary Lundeberg (Chapter Eight) analyze the cognitive processes involved when reading professional-level texts. This chapter contains a description of highly skilled reading based on a study of social scientists. Steps in reading professional literature include first scanning the article, reading front to back, rereading sections as necessary for clarification or as memory aid, and spending more time on some sections than others. Flexible readers use prior knowledge, evaluate and interpret what they are reading in relation to personal and professional interests, and continue to process the information even after they finish reading. Pressley and Lundeberg expand upon these findings by outlining knowledge necessary for professionals to enable active reading. Being a good reader is not enough to be a skillful reader of technical or scientific information. First, knowing where and how to find information is essential. Second, the ability to derive meaning from text involves directing attention to a goal, knowing the structure of an article, using prior knowledge to actively retrieve information, relating what is read to what is known, and the act of reflection.
Chapter Nine, by Susan E. Israel, investigates cognitive “monitoring” and the strategies readers use to improve comprehension. Good readers typically use more than one strategy and shift strategies as necessary but little research has been done to determine how shifting is accomplished. Israel used verbal, recall, and retrospective reports to compare strategy use across good and weaker readers in a small sample of middle schoolers reading fiction and nonfiction. Strategies used in the study were: determining word meaning, employing either strict or liberal interpretation, identifying confusing text, and rereading text. All readers in the study were found to monitor their reading. Reading nonfiction the good readers employed more strategies than weaker readers, shifting according to need. Weaker readers spent more time rereading text, tended to use strict interpretation, and spent less time on the other strategies. When reading fiction, weaker readers used strategies similar to those used by good readers but placed less importance on finding confusing text or determining meaning. Israel closes the chapter with recommendations for instruction in monitoring strategies using both fiction and nonfiction texts.
In Chapter Ten, the point of focus for authors Cynthia Hynd Shanahan and Timothy Shanahan is discipline specific reading and learning instruction for young adults. The authors note reading skills and processes transfer to different types of texts but replacing existing mental representations (naïve beliefs and misconceptions) with disciplinary knowledge takes cognitive flexibility. General strategies used to improve comprehension have not been found to be particularly useful for discipline specific studies because they don’t encourage deep processing necessary for more difficult content. Using teams of experts, the authors compared strategies for reading text in the fields of chemistry, mathematics, and history. In accord with the content found in Chapter Eight (Pressley and Lundeberg), each team invoked prior knowledge and personalized and evaluative arguments as important aspects of the evidence-based critical thinking found in their discipline but each discipline uses that information in different ways for entirely different purposes. Differences in visual representations were even found between the seemingly similar disciplines of mathematics and chemistry. The authors reject the creation of one-size-fits-all teaching strategy; suggesting general reading and comprehension strategies be used for processing less specialized texts and the creation of discipline specific materials.
In Chapter Eleven authors Betty Ann Levy and W. Matthew Collins review the instructional practice of rereading in connection with fluency and comprehension, analyzing how and when cognitive processes change through repetition. There are two schools of thought regarding development of reading fluency. The abstractionist view posits fluency as the ability to pull words from a “mental dictionary” regardless of context while the episodic view attends to the representation of words, not the individual units, and is context specific. Fluent readers are those who can quickly decode words, recognize and understand linguistic patterns of speech, and possess in memory an underlying representational structure that leads to better text processing. As previously discussed in Chapter Six, the relationship between fluency and comprehension is not straightforward and needs to be more thoroughly explored. Expressive reading and adequate decoding are important in developing fluency but by themselves are not enough to advance comprehension. Text processing and semantic content are two levels of context-independent representation when combined with a third level of context-dependent representation create meaning for the reader. According to the authors, whether or not rereading text should be used in instruction very much depends upon the individual’s general level of fluency, reading purpose and the type of text being read. Studies show that rereading techniques used with poor readers enhances vocabulary and speeds access to individual word representations. That same technique used with fluent readers leads to better overall text representation. Decoding individual words leads to a decrease in comprehension so that fluent readers may benefit from rereading strategies when text is difficult or when reading for meaning. Combining aural with visual instruction enhances fluency in beginning and poor readers with additional strategies for fluency training including explicit modeling, repeated practice using easy and familiar texts, and feedback to students.
Part Four of the text is oriented toward teachers’ instructional practice. Chapters in this section present concepts of flexibility with practical strategies for teaching reading skills.
Relaying information about brain development found in the field of neuroscience, Sheri R. Parris and Cathy Collins Block begin Chapter Twelve with a description of the creation of neural pathways necessary to receive, store, and retrieve information. While there is apparently no critical period for acquiring vocabulary and comprehension, the importance of early development of cognitive flexibility is stressed, as is the importance of continued practice to retain and strengthen skills. This is particularly important in adolescence and early adulthood when brain specialization and neural pruning takes place. Incorporating recent neuroscience research, two instructional applications for building vocabulary and comprehension are briefly described. Learning and motivation are based in the limbic system. This area of the brain, also responsible for processing emotion, is where memories are formed. Researchers found students are able to increase vocabulary learning when they connect words to personal meaning. Encountering words often and in various ways also increases learning that leads to better comprehension. Direct instruction in four types of words (familiar words, those containing prefixes, suffixes, and roots, content specific, and unusual words) was found to be highly effective in one study. Other research shows, through the use of dual-coding, reading comprehension is achieved through multiple pathways. Because visual and auditory processes, working individually or in concert, are thought to increase flexibility in thinking teaching both linguistically and non-linguistically reaches students with various learning styles. Comprehension process motions (CPM) is one method of instruction that takes advantage of dual-coding through use of hand motions to represent comprehension processes. Hand motions, similar to American Sign Language, are thought to help students become consciously aware of hidden processes. The authors believe metacognitive skills and cognitive flexibility are strengthened through CPM instruction and use. Lesson plans applying CPM for whole-class, small-group, and independent reading are provided.
In Chapter Thirteen, Heidi Anne Mesmer encourages teachers to take the perspective of the beginning reader. Choosing material appropriate for each individual student should be based upon the developmental level and interest of each reader. In addition, teachers must not only understand developmental milestones in reading (pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, word recognition, and decoding) but also the different types of textual scaffolding employed within the texts. Textual scaffolds bridge the gap between needing assistance and what a reader can do alone. Three scaffolding systems, each encouraging different strategies for word recognition, are reported here. Books utilizing qualitative leveling systems address multiple levels of language, content, and text. These texts are ranked by level of difficulty based on text features, pictures, simple versus complex sentence structure and vocabulary, predictable or unpredictable patterns, and experience with topic or genre. Decodable text systems coordinate printed words with phonics lessons, encouraging word decoding as a strategy for word recognition. Vocabulary-controlled materials introduce and repeat new words within and across stories, using word frequency as the basis for word difficulty. The “Dick and Jane” basal readers are an example of this type of scaffolding system. Noting a general lack of research in textual scaffolding and reading development, the author suggests the use of leveled systems is the most widespread. Decodable text, less widespread, is used primarily for sounding out and not for comprehension. The author believes it is unfortunate vocabulary control has lost favor because this textual scaffolding system may build fluency. When to use which strategy for different developmental levels is described in a case study involving first graders. The author emphasizes the importance of knowing which scaffolding system the publisher uses, recognition as to the developmental level and interest of the reader, and what specifically is causing the reader difficulty. The ability to juggle all these factors will increase the teacher’s cognitive flexibility.
In order to teach cognitive flexibility to students, Dixie Massey says instructors must themselves be flexible. In Chapter Fourteen, Massey portrays the flexible teacher as one who understands and is able to identify their own reading strategies while using this knowledge to motivate their students. According to Massey, this ability to identify reading strategies, many ingrained and difficult to explain, can be a challenge and one requiring reflection on the part of the teacher. Research suggests teachers don’t read as widely as they should, limiting their reading to school and curriculum related material thus reading in a variety of mediums for both personal and professional purposes enhances the teachers’ own flexibility. Modeling which strategy works best with different types of text (e.g. newspapers, magazines, novels, and the internet) and modeling how to use several strategies simultaneously promotes effective reading. Consistent with the findings of Pressley and Lundeberg (Chapter 8), professionals skim, reread, use prior knowledge, and summarize. Massey advises teaching these strategies through explicit instruction and suggests multiple assessments to measure student understanding. Accepting the reality of pre-packaged curricula, the author encourages teachers to examine and compare programs in relation to required standards, keep current with the latest literacy research, and integrate personal instructional ideas into the program. Deliberate practice by both teachers and students is essential to the ongoing use of multiple strategies for without practice flexibility is diminished.
The use of “computer-supported collaborative learning” in metalinguistic awareness is considered in Chapter Fifteen (Nicola Yuill, Lucinda Kerawalla, Darren Pearce, Rose Luckin, and Amanda Harris). The coordination between form and meaning requires cognitive flexibility yet acquiring the metacognitive skills necessary to master this adjustment occurs gradually. Young children have difficulty understanding what is represented and how it is represented until approximately four years of age. In this “representational view” the young child constructs meaning from what they understand of the world around them rather than the situation at hand thus possibly using faulty reasoning. It isn’t until a child reaches the ages between seven and nine that interpreting ambiguous statements is made easier and explains why jokes are such a hit with this age group. The lack of understanding or poor comprehension between the underlying meaning of text and the spoken word is thought to be a matter of cognitive inflexibility. Even children who are perfectly capable when it comes to decoding words may fall behind in comprehension if they are unable to interpret or make inferences based on what is heard in spoken language or seen in written text. Believing comprehension skills and tasks require thinking about language in different ways, the authors illustrate two training studies using computer software and peer discussion to assist in improving comprehension.
In Chapter Sixteen the beliefs, strategies and practices of highly effective teachers are outlined. Although Ruth Wharton-McDonald reviews the literature in relation to literacy instruction, classroom teachers, regardless of subject or age of students, would benefit from the findings presented here. Teachers who exhibit “flexibility in adapting instructional strategies and materials” for each individual student influence student achievement (p. 344). Detailed knowledge about each student’s abilities, style, and interests enables tailored instruction that will hopefully lead to student interest. Because motivated students are more apt to sustain effort and engagement in tasks, Wharton-McDonald believes it is important to provide challenging but not overwhelming tasks that lead to success. As in previous chapters, the importance of scaffolding is mentioned here. Scaffolding requires teacher flexibility, which beginning teachers may not yet have. Novice teachers may have the necessary content knowledge but not the experience to balance various teaching methods, materials, and student diversity that exemplify flexible instruction. According to the author, findings from scientific research show teacher flexibility to be the key factor in effective literacy instruction.
Editor and author Kelly B. Cartwright concludes this text by reviewing material presented in prior chapters while simultaneously advancing ideas for future research. Cartwright envisions literacy incorporated within three overarching themes: contemporary theories of cognition, life span development, and the complexity of literacy processes. Literacy researchers are strongly encouraged to integrate cognitive-developmental perspectives into their work as well as considering literacy development across the life span. Although research has shown literacy skills continue to develop as we age most research focuses on the early years and doesn’t include adolescent or adult readers. Additional theories addressing these older age groups need to be developed. Another area for researchers to expand upon is that of expert readers and expert teachers. Studying the performance of “experts” may assist in the creation of strategies and instruction to inform practice and used with less flexible readers. Finally, the author believes the complexity of literacy processes and instruction has not been fully recognized in the United States. Cognitive flexibility is necessary for both teacher and student when teaching and learning complex processes but current educational mandates tend to reward uniformity thereby inhibiting flexibility.
About the Reviewer
Sarah Knox Morley is PhD candidate in educational psychology at the University of New Mexico. Ms. Morley is clinical services librarian and School of Medicine faculty at UNM. Her research interests relate to information literacy in undergraduate and graduate medical education.
No comments:
Post a Comment