Blake, Brett Elizabeth & Blake, Robert W. (2005). Literacy Primer. Renee Murley, University of Memphis

Blake, Brett Elizabeth & Blake, Robert W. (2005). Literacy Primer. NY: Peter Lang Publishing. Pp. i + 193 $18.95     ISBN 0-8204-7077-5 Renee Murley University of Memphis April 28, 2006 As I began this reading, I was overwhelmed with the historical perspective of how literacy began and just how the past has influenced where we are today. I have become so engrossed with educating children of today, I have not taken the time to reflect on how this concept of literacy has impacted the materials we use, the schools of today and how children learn to become literate beings. As I continued through this book, I was impressed by the authors’ ability to connect history with the present as they also prepare readers for the future of literacy. In the beginning of the book, the authors address the importance of why we need a world society of literate people. We sometimes become complacent about the importance of literacy in the United States, but we affect others and are affected by nations who either are literate or illiterate. The authors discuss literacy, its levels and its impact on the world. There are so many different definitions for “literacy”. They identified that there is an inability to isolate a single consistent definition of literacy. Many refer to literacy as the ability to read and write. With this ability to read and write, comes the question of levels of competencies. If a person can read 3-letter words such as "dog, cat, pig," is that person literate? When attempting to determine a universal definition, the layers of literacy must be determined and identified. Blake and Blake discussed functional literacy to refer to a minimal level of literate functioning. They identified four categories of minimal literate functions. They are functional literacy, writing, numeral and document knowledge. Functional literacy refers to the minimal level of literacy. This describes an acceptable grasp of the skills of reading and writing for functioning in society as a young adult. Young adults must be able to demonstrate basic levels of literacy while at work, in the community, and in their personal lives. Under the category of writing, there is presently insufficient research and empirical evidence to determine skills for writing to set criteria levels for writing literacy. Research on writing literacy has been a focus for about 15 years. Due to the recency of this topic, there is little evidence to establish a set of guidelines. Numerate literacy addresses the basic skills of addition, subtraction, comparison (greater, lesser), dates and times. This topic explains how a person might use numeration skills throughout their daily lives in activities such as: counting money, balancing a checkbook, comparing prices, telling time and keeping up with the date. Lastly, document knowledge refers to the ability to make sense of tax forms, job applications, schedules etc. A person who wishes to function in society must be able to complete a job application, complete a resume, maintain a schedule and complete basic information on forms such as tax documents. All of these minimal functions deal specifically with the ability to function with little or no trouble in an educated society. Speaking and Writing In chapter 2, the authors return to the very basics of literacy. The foundation of literacy must begin with speech. When we address the language of a people, it includes articulations, vowel and consonant sounds, phraseology and terminology. The language used by a people provides the initial symbols, phrases and sounds that writing represents; words, letters, symbols are a written form of speech. The Greeks were often credited with the invention of the alphabet. Homer’s poetry was an oral presentation of narrative works. They told stories to teach valuable lessons. “The Illiadand the Odyssey, we are told, formed the bible of the Greeks for centuries and were the basis of education, both for formal schooling and informal instruction for all citizens.” (p. 51). Another Greek philosopher who brought a different perspective to oral teachings was Plato. Plato’s perspective provided an opportunity to include abstract thinking, which was often referred to as the philosophers’ language. His new ideals brought forth the need “for a new kind of written, prosaic language” (p. 50). This debate was the beginning of literary and expository text, which is discussed in chapter three. At the beginning, the written word was often translated by an educated individual trained to translate for the illiterate. Once words were written for the educated population to read on their own, people experienced a new world of independence. However, when people of different cultures attempted to communicate there obviously were problems. Individuals of a dominate culture would rely on written forms of communication as well as spoken words. Those individuals of an “illiterate” culture would often be mistreated in trading situations and especially in schooling opportunities. “The contact through schooling generally came about as a dominant people forced their own language upon a conquered people.” (p.34) When the culture transformed from an oral to a literate culture, literacy became a change agent for society. The development of the alphabet changed the Western world forever. The impact of print still effects society today. As a result of the invention of print, we now have school as we know it, media exposure, newspapers, magazines, computers, internet and the ability to gain knowledge and experience from the past. The largest impact on the Western World was the publication of the King James Bible. How We Learned to Read In chapter three, the fundamental concepts of learning to read are addressed. The chapter reveals two main elements of written documents that were identified as effect how one learns to read. First is the arrangement of the language in reference to its grammar and syntax. The other element is the format of the written or printed page. Grammar and syntax deal with how a language is written. The primary language in the early centuries was Latin. The Latin language is written very differently based on phrasing, word inflection and the use of word endings to provide meaning. Therefore, the differences amongst various languages had to be addressed and understood in order to establish a language usable for a group of people. When I think of a written page of a book, I visualize words divided by spaces, punctuation, paragraphs, and page numbers. Initially, text was written without spaces and punctuation. Scholars were reading from texts that had no separation of words. Therefore reading was very tiring and laboring. According to Blake and Blake, “the primary act of reading must be an easy, swift and unconscious act”. (p. 38) During this time period, reading was anything but easy. Eventually, during the seventh century, a group of Irish scribes were translating scriptures and noticed the pages that they were translating contained spaces between the words and therefore, continued to do the same. Unfortunately, the change did not spread until the thirteenth century. During this time period, the most important changes in how we think were: 1) page composition with the separation of words and punctuation 2) introduction of vernacular language usage instead of traditional Latin 3) spelling of words became consistent so that there could be a smooth reading experience 4) books were used for information so that new information could be shared. Along with the changes of how we think, came the changes in how we learned to read. The authors identified three important changes that affected how we learned to read. These changes occurred during the late Middle Ages and continue to impact us today. The first change was in language. The change from Latin to word-seperated script in the vernacular allowed an increase in the number of people who could read. The second change was how books were produced. Books were once transcribed by hand and put together manually. Books were also written while someone else dictated the words. Later, visual transcriptions from one translation to another became more effective and efficient. “Thanks to the printing press in the mid-1440s, the publication of books increased at a furious pace.” (p. 117) The third change was the opening of new schools. In these new schools reading and writing was taught and numerous people were taught to read and write for the first time. The greatest function of schools, according to the authors, was its ability to spread literacy. Expository and Literary Text Blake and Blake introduce two modes of knowing. With the combination of these two modes, a person has the ability to completely comprehend and experience knowledge. The two modes introduced by Blake and Blake address the literary text and expository text. Each of the two texts must be read differently in order to comprehend and gain information. The authors introduce Jerome Bruner, a cognitive psychologist, and his reasoning of how we perceive information around us. “According to Bruner, the two basic ways our brains work are essentially different from each other. Taken together, the two modes make a whole method of apprehending reality.” (p.124) Therefore Blake and Blake have established the basis for the two modes of knowledge. “The primary purpose of informational texts is to impart knowledge, derived from observation and experience.” (p. 138) Within the expository text, basic factual information is shared. This is often referred to as the scientific or abstract thought process. In order to gather the information and understand what is written, there needs to be a familiarity with the expository text. Vocabulary must be known so that the reader can maneuver within the text. Phrasing and terminology must also be familiar so that the reader can read with ease throughout the text. “The text is a model of inductive thinking, a form of logical reasoning in which we draw conclusions about members of a group after observing a number of the members of that class.” (p. 134) We could also include a partial list of Howard Gardner’s Eight Theories of Multiple Intelligences under the umbrella of expository mode of knowing. His logical mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence and in some instances his linguistic intelligence could also reflect a form of the expository mode of knowledge, because it identifies a higher level of thinking which is required for the expository text learners. The authors do a wonderful job of listing major informational text structures that information writing follows. They include: describing, defining, classifying, comparing and contrasting and arguing (persuading). Blake and Blake provide to a list of critical thinking strategies used for reading informational texts; they also provide a list of practical strategies for reading informational texts. These lists could be very useful for the preservice teacher in their preparation for teaching. There is not as much to consider with literary text. It is considered a mode of knowledge that is translated fictionally. It’s entertaining and often involves sensory involvement and emotional experiences. Literary text is often reading for pleasure and with pleasure comes the ease of understanding. “The primary purposes are to trigger emotional experiences and provide – mostly indirectly- lessons for living.” (p. 147) There are other theorists who also have identified a similar mode of knowing. One such theorists, Elliot Eisner, believed in an aesthetic mode of knowing, which include musical composers, painters and architects as well as writers (p.126). We could also include Gardners’ Theory Multiple Intelligences under literary text also. His identification of musical and linguistic intelligences as a mode of learning could be beneficial for the literary text learner. With this understanding, teachers should strive to incorporate a combination of both modes of knowing into their classrooms. Students enjoy the literary text and have little difficulty gathering understanding. However, the expository text is challenging for students. It requires more background knowledge, vocabulary building and a general understanding of the content. With the recognition and need for both text, there must be different language used, different ways to read both texts. While maintaining consistency within the chapter, the authors again include a list of major literary text structures such as: poetry and narrative, with many subgenres. Blake and Blake also provide further strategies for the classroom such as: classroom reader response, practical strategies for reading narration and practical strategies for reading poetry. These will also be useful in the preparation of teachers. Today’s Literacy Chapter four addresses literacy today. The history of literacy contains many layers of theories and changes. It continues today in the debate as to how children (and/or adults) should learn to read. Some may propose phonics, or whole language while others may encourage a whole balance approach to reading. The method of instruction is not the only factor to be evaluated. The population in the United States now includes students of a diverse population. In reference to literacy, diverse refers to the student who is learning English as their Second Language. These students are called English Language Learners (ELL) or English as a Second Language (ESL) students. The ESL student struggles with much more than just the language barrier. They have different cultural experiences and struggle with a different abundance of background knowledge. They have trouble translating phrases and terms into their language in order to comprehend material. Those teaching ELL students need to be trained and aware of the varying needs of these students. There are barriers much deeper than letters and words on pages. The authors identify four challenges faced by ELL students. First, the ELL students begin their American schools two to three years behind. They must also learn unfamiliar content in a language which is not their native tongue. They deal with self-worth issues as they struggle with their heritage and their new place in a new society. Also, ELL students experience discrimination due to fact that others believe that they are ignorant because they are from anther country. Many of these children were excellent students in their native countries. Another factor to consider in teaching students today to be literate is high-stakes assessment. With the drive to succeed based on standard test results, teachers are forced to be more concerned with how children will perform on the test and not if ELL students are receiving effective instruction. ELL students are culturally biased while taking standardized tests in the United States. Until this changes, ELL students will be forced to underachieve. After reviewing the avenue of literacy throughout history, from people of different cultures and languages, and from the perspective of the difficulties in teaching all people to be literate, it forces us to reflect on what the future will hold for literacy. Changes in people and societies are imminent. These changes require the world, individual nations, states and communities to be aware of the needs of its people. In conclusion, today’s global society needs desperately to be educated in order to better itself. Literacy will allow knowledge to be gained and shared for generations to come. All educators are literacy leaders for the world. It is our role to lead others to address the needs of students, adults and especially immigrant communities who require extra assistance in their endeavor in becoming literate. Supplemental Information The authors provide extra material to assist in the understanding of the information surrounding literacy terms. Throughout the chapters, the margin provides definitions for immediate reference. At the end of each chapter there is a summary of the details discussed and a glossary with definitions and examples for further review. At the end of the book, there is a reference and resource section. They have included supplemental resources for further review. A Web Resource list is also included and is grouped into the following categories: general interest, lesson plans and teaching resources, literacy research, organizations, foundations and educational associations, readers and writers and educational associations. These extra resources would be beneficial to the students using the Primer as well as to the professor. About the Reviewer Renee Murley is an instructor as well as a coordinator of the elementary education program of a satellite campus for the University of Memphis. Her primary research areas are literacy with an emphasis in vocabulary. She works with area schools to incorporate literacy strategies. She serves as a Cadre for three schools who have received Reading First Grants for the state of Tennessee. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review.