Glickman, Carl D. (Ed.). (2007) Letters to the Next President: What We Can Do About the Real Crisis in Public Education. 2008 Election Edition. Reviewed by Kenneth J. Bernstein

Glickman, Carl D. (Ed.). (2007) Letters to the Next President: What We Can Do About the Real Crisis in Public Education. 2008 Election Edition. NY, NY: Teachers College Press. Pp. xvii + 279     ISBN 978-0-8077-4809-1 Reviewed by Kenneth J. Bernstein October 8, 2007 In his “Note on the 2008 Election Edition” Carl Glickman explains why a book released only three years ago needs a new edition: Why a new edition? Because we are beginning a new era of possibilities about what it means to be a well-educated American and because no issue is more important to America’s future than quality of education for its next generation of citizens. Only an informed and engaged citizenry can revitalize American democracy, so this time we have to get it right. (p. xi) “So this time we have to get it right.” The first edition of the book came out more than two years after the signing of No Child Left Behind, and this updated edition was released in the middle of the ongoing debates over reauthorization of that law. Many from across the political and educational spectra have called for significant changes to that law which so drives educational policy in this country. Addressing such a document in 2004 to ”the next president” implied that the current president, who was after all running for reelection, was probably not amenable to the suggestions being offered. Now we face an election without an incumbent, and perhaps the title is more appropriate. Given that four of the Democratic candidates (Kucinich in the House, Dodd, Clinton and Obama in the Senate) sit on the committees responsible for reauthorization, this is a book that has some immediate relevance, and might well be useful not only for them but for all the other candidates of both parties, that is, if they are willing to listen to some real truths from people who are intimately involved with education and understand the impact of the policy decisions a president can make or can influence. I begin with the appropriate level of disclosure. I am a classroom teacher, in my case high school social studies, and also an education advocate, with strong views on many of the issues addressed in this book. I have lobbied on issues related to No Child Left Behind, especially in conjunction with the director of the Forum on Educational Accountability. That organization’s Joint Organizational Statement is one of the key resources provided to the reader. Further, I have corresponded with several of the contributors, and am an open admirer of several more. In other words, I come to this book predisposed to be favorable to what those authors have to offer. And in general I found myself in agreement with most of what the authors presented. Having recently written a number of online pieces examining the educational proposals of four of the Democratic candidates, I note both overlap from some of those plans and the materials in this book, and some issues addressed more clearly by the writers of the letters than I have yet to see on the part of any major American politician. Before getting into the specific suggestions offered, let me describe the structure of the book. It begins with a dedication that is worth repeating: To all children, who deserve an education steeped in wisdom, engagement, and public purpose. Besides the previously mentioned Note on this edition, the book begins with a foreword by Bill Cosby (who has masters and doctoral degrees in education from the University of Massachusetts), acknowledgements, and the introduction that was part of the original 2004 edition. The book is then divided into five parts: Schools for All Learning for All Teaching for All Standards for All Education for All There is a conclusion, written by Linda Darling-Hammond, a list of organizations for parents, educators and activists, the organizational statement from FEA, and notes about the Editor and Contributors. At the end of his original introduction, Glickman provides a list of sources and suggested readings. And within the five parts are 37 letters, the authors of which range from nationally known figures in education such as Deborah Meier, John Goodlad, James Popham, and Ted Sizer, to the director and present and former students of the Little Singer Community School, a solar-powered charter school in Northeastern Arizona set up to allow children of the Navajo nation to get rooted in their own culture before moving on to more traditional public education. Even in an extended review, it is impossible to explore all of the riches contained in this book. As Glickman notes, some of the letters have been updated for this edition, and there is a letter on Crafting Legislation by Elizabeth Debray-Pilot that is new for this edition. That letter urges our next president to attempt to take the partisan elements out of educational policy, and notes that only Congressional hearing for the authorization of No Child Left Behind, and the only witness was then Secretary of Education Rod Paige. Debray-Pilot reviews the history of how the old coalition of groups that had influenced educational policy in Democratic congresses and administrations was replaced when Republicans took power at the same time that education was becoming more important for governors as well as presidents. Unfortunately, that led to the voices of ideological think tanks being heard often to the exclusion of practitioner groups, and as led to increased hostility on the part of such groups to educational mandates being imposed through the Congress. There is no doubt that there are serious issues facing America about our schools, but if we are going to be successful in addressing them, if we are going to able to openly ask the difficult questions and examine the hard challenges, if we cannot remove partisanship we are unlikely to reach conclusions and agree on actions that will be able to improve our schools. Having this letter as the final one before the conclusion reminds us that regardless of our own views on education, we need to acknowledge the importance of including a wide diversity of voices if the policies we seek to craft for education are going to gain the support necessary if they are going to have significant and salutary effects on our schools. It is impossible in a review of this length to cover fully the riches of this book. Let me touch on a few examples that I hope will illustrate just how rich it is. In a letter entitled “How Our High School Makes A Difference” George Wood, principal of Federal Hocking High School in rural Stewart, Ohio, notes that the school is built around long class periods, with teachers having fewer than 80 students a day. I note that teacher load is the maximum level recommended by Ted Sizer in his Horace books that led to the Coalition of Essential Schools, of which Federal Hocking is a member. Wood previously founded a school in Los Angeles, served as an elected school member and as a professor of education at Ohio University before embarking on his current role, which also includes his serving as director of the Forum for Education and Democracy. As is typical in CES schools, Federal Hocking has a great focus on the use of portfolios to evaluate students for graduation. They also, as he notes, “have developed an advisory system than ensures every student is closely followed throughout high school by an adult who knows him or her well” (p. 86). He views this as important because “students are more willing to take risks in front of adults whom they know well, and change certainly involves risk. They are also more likely to model productive adult behavior when they have the chance to be near productive adults” (p. 89). While not necessarily arguing for exact replication of his school, Wood draws a number of lessons he thinks should be applied and which he recommends to the next president: The president leads by providing a vision of our goals and the methods we will use to achieve them. Funds are made available for innovations and multiple approaches are welcome. Decision-making authority is localized and decentralized. Regulations are limited or waived. Outcomes are broad, with multiple measures of success embraced.” (p. 91). Such lists of suggestions occur in a number of other letters. Deborah Meier, who also founded several schools that were part of the Coalition of Essential Schools (and who is along with Wood among the conveners of the Forum for Education and Democracy) includes in her list focusing on smaller schools, encouraging local decision making, getting good information, providing choice for parents, providing resources for improving facilities and supporting professionals, providing time including for parents to be more part of the lives of their children, using a language of respect (about which more anon) and closing the gaps. Former Senator Jim Jeffords, who titles his letter “It’s Past Time to Fund What We Mandate” asks for serving every Title I eligible child, meeting all of the mandates of NCLB, increasing funding for Pell grants and other sources of post-secondary financial aid, providing quality professional development for all school personnel with an emphasis on science and math, and finally providing the full 40% federal share of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Reynold Levy, president of the Lincoln Center for the Arts, presents a list of arguments on behalf of the role of arts in education. Rachel Tompkins, president of the Rural School and Community Trust provides two lists, one with the ways research shows small schools to be more effective, as well as a list of things the Federal government can appropriately do to improve education, including continued support for the E-rate and making greater investment in appropriate technology and its use. Her “Nine Million Voices” points out that 40 percent of the nation’s public schools are in rural communities or towns with a population under 25,000, and these schools contain 28% of our nation's school children. She also explores the ways much of our educational policy seems to ignore the particular needs of our rural schools, which contrary to public opinion are often as diverse as are our inner city schools, with blacks in Mississippi, Native Americans in South Dakota, and, Hispanics in New Mexico illustrating that diversity. Beyond lists, there are many insightful comments. I want to quote the beginning of Deborah Meier’s 7th point, which is entitled “Use a Language of Respect”: Since kids cannot learn from teachers or schools that they neither trust nor respect, the way we publicly talk about teachers and schools matters. Disrespect comes in many forms, but it starts with our leadership. Our children learn by example: It’s hard to be taught by people whom powerful people look down upon. Keep this in mind when you think about how little teachers are paid and what that pay differential says to kids. I have seen too many parents act out the disrespect they read in their local newspapers and hear from their local and national politicians and then act surprised when their kids act up. Please, be careful how you speak of schools and teachers when you address the nation in press conferences and public speeches. (pp. 24-25) I wish those words would be read by every politician, officeholder, or aspirant to office, before they bloviate further on the failings of our public schools and our teachers. They need to realize the impact of the words they speak, and how that impact makes improving our schools that much more difficult. But then, I am a public school teacher who regularly encounters precisely what Meier describes, so perhaps you, dear reader, will therefore discount my words. Be careful, because without dedicated teachers no reform will work. That is why a book like this, which includes the voices of professional educators, is such a valuable resource. In recent years our educational policy at state as well as national levels has focused on accountability. I have in the past described approaches such as those upon which NCLB is based as “the beatings will continue until the morale improves.” I often wonder how many dictating educational policy truly believe that public shaming is an effective way of improving education. Thus, when I read an essay entitled “The No-Win Accountability Game” by one of America’s great experts on testing, W. James Popham, I find moral comfort beginning with his opening paragraph: Few Americans will deny that our public schools urgently require improvement. However, few Americans realize that a test-based accountability strategy that originally intended to improve our schools is now having precisely the opposite effect. (p. 166) Popham, now emeritus at UCLA, has served as President of the American Educational Research Association, where, as the biographical information about him on p. 275-76 notes He was the founding editor of AERA’s quarterly journal, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. In 2002, the National Council on Measurement in education presented him with its award for Career Contributions to Educational Measurement. Policy makers have no more listened to the professional measurement experts like Popham than they have to classroom teachers and administrators. Popham’s “letter” is one of the most important of the contributions to the book. He discusses the limitations of testing in a way that is easily accessible to those without a background either in education or in psychometrics. He reminds us that even tests aligned with state content standards have a shortcoming that “they attempt to measure far too many content standards” because “Most states’ officially approved content standards are little more than well-intentioned curricular wish list because the curriculum specialists who identified those content standards wanted the state’s students to learn all sorts of wonderful things” (p. 171). Popham warns us that at best we can measure a modest number of the most significant skills we want our students to master. He closing paragraph is potentially chilling, if we consider our recent forays into national educational policy making, although it also offers hope to the president who will listen to Popham, and the other authors in this book: Democracy will not survive in any nation whose future citizens are poorly educated – and a poorly educated citizenry is what we will get if we impose a wrongheaded accountability strategy on our schools. Test-based educational accountability cannot work if it relies on inappropriate tests. A president who understands this situation – truly understands it – can set out to fix it. I truly hope you will. (p. 173) Linda Darling-Hammond’s “Conclusion” is further entitled “Schools That Work For All Children.” Perhaps because some people like Eric Hanushek have challenged the idea that spending more on schools makes any positive difference, Darling-Hammond devotes part of her essay towards the costs of not spending on education. At a time when there are fewer unskilled jobs without education, that lack of education is linked to crime and welfare dependency. And yet over the two decades of the 1980s and 1990’s we increased spending on corrections over 900%, seeing our incarcerated population triple. She continues: During the 1990s, there were more African American citizens in the criminal justice system that there were in college. During the same period, per pupil spending for schools grew by only about forty percent in real dollar terms, and less in the cities which have fallen further behind their suburban neighbors in acquiring the resources to educate a growing population of students, more of whom speak little English, live in poverty, lack health care, and have special educational needs. Children who receive inadequate education are increasingly unlikely to be able to become productive citizens, yet many schools – especially those that serve large numbers of students of color – lack the courses, materials, equipment, and qualified teachers that would give students access to the education they will need to participate in today’s and tomorrow’s world. More than half the adult prison population has literacy skills below those required by the labor market, and nearly forty percent of adjudicated juvenile delinquents have treatable learning disabilities that went undiagnosed and untreated in the schools. In short, because we did not invest enough in their education, we have had to pay at least five times as much each year to keep them in jail. (pp. 244-245) Quality teachers are a necessity if we are going to improve our schools. Perhaps Darling-Hammond’s penultimate paragraph on p. 257 can put into context what it might cost to significantly increase our pool of such teachers: For the cost of one percent of the bush administration’s tax cuts in 2003, or the equivalent of one week’s combat costs during the war in Iraq, we could provide top-quality preparation for more than one hundred and fifty thousand new teachers to teach in high-need schools and mentor all of the new teachers who are hired over the next five years. With just a bit of focus and a purposeful plan, we could ensure that all students in the United States are taught by highly-qualified teachers within the next five years. Now that would be real accountability to children and their parents. I hope that I have been able to give some sense of the power of this book. It is not that expensive, nor will it take all that long to read. It contains as much good and rational thinking about schools as I have encountered in one volume. There is a wealth of ideas, derived from the experience of committed people. Some are educators in schools and universities. Others are students, or parents, or like Jim Jeffords worked on legislation dealing with education. I do not deny that many of the authors have similar views on educational matters. Nor do I deny that I concur with many of their analyses and suggestions. Some who bring a different philosophy to the making of education policy might be tempted to argue that the book is therefore imbalanced. I would suggest that most voices from within education will disagree with those from think tanks and political consulting firms, and agreement with most of what is offered in this book. That one might have a different perception is largely because the voices of people from within education often do not get the audiences that others have had. It is not that we educators are either unwilling to be held accountable for those things we can control nor do we fail to recognize the many problems in our schools as they currently are. But it is those of us within the classroom and the school building offices on whom any meaningful change will depend. One would think those wishing to alter our schools for the better might therefore consider including more voices from those of us whose efforts you will need for those alterations to work. Perhaps you will argue that you have a different opinion than do I, or the authors of this book. My response would be that offered in a similar situation by the late Daniel Patrick Moynihan, who informed someone asserting his different opinion that while he was entitled to his own opinion, he was not entitled to his own facts. The facts about America’s schools are fairly represented by the letters in this book. Even if you disagree with all the suggestions, that alone makes the book not only worth reading, it may make it essential reading for anyone who would presume to play a major role in reshaping educational policy in this country. It is equally useful for those who care about educational policy, whose lives and the lives of their children will inevitably feel the impact of any changes in educational policy, as so many have already felt the impact of No Child Left Behind. Read the book. You will find it time and money well spent. About the Reviewer Kenneth J. Bernstein is a National Board Certified Social Studies teacher. He holds degrees in music from Haverford, Religions from St. Charles Seminary, and teaching from Johns Hopkins University. He did extensive doctoral studies in educational administration and policy studies at The Catholic University of America, and additional studies in reading education at the University of Virginia. He has served as a peer reviewer for a number of professional publications, including Current Issues in Education and Teachers College Record. He is coauthor of Rotberg, I; Bernstein, K. J. & Ritter, S. B. (July, 2001). No Child Left Behind: Views about the potential impact of the Bush administration's education proposals. Washington, DC: Institute for Education Policy Studies.

Osler, Audrey & Starkey, Hugh (2005). Changing citizenship: Democracy and inclusion in education. Reviewed by Michael Ernest Sweet, Concordia University

Osler, Audrey & Starkey, Hugh (2005). Changing citizenship: Democracy and inclusion in education. New York: Open University Press. 229 pp.     ISBN 0-335-21181-X Reviewed by Michael Ernest Sweet Concordia University October 11, 2007 Citizenship is changing. From Canadian Marshal McLuhan's (1967) coining the term "global village" in 1967, to the globalizing decade of the 90s, our world has been witness to great change. Who we deal with and how we deal with them has undergone a radical metamorphosis. We are indeed, in many ways, a global village. Within this framework it only makes sense that people, as citizens, have changed also. Albert Schweitzer’s (1987) idea of the global citizen is no longer a mere idealist image, but something much closer to reality. Citizens are now presented with increasing opportunities to act in new ways on a global level. The globalization of media has brought world issues into our living rooms and our consciousness. Sustainable development, peace, and social progress are global priorities and affect us all. The idea of global or world citizenship has been a controversial one and too often misunderstood. Martha Nussbaum’s (1994) essay “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism” published in the Boston Review returned the Hellenistic concept to center stage in academia. Published with nearly thirty responses, it quickly became clear that cosmopolitanism was not going to be easily accepted as the panacea to contemporary world issues, as Nussbaum optimistically hoped. Despite its obvious attraction in the contemporary world, given the reality of globalization, it is simply not an easy concept to position as practical. Scholarship illustrating such a point is still prevalent, the most recent of which is Naseem and Hyslop-Margison’s (2006) article titled Nussbaum’s Concept of Cosmopolitanism: Practical Possibility of Academic Delusion? Authors Audrey Osler and Hugh Starkey in their book Changing Citizenship: Democracy and Inclusion in Education lay bare the notion of global citizenship, not as the outward force of a world government, but as a world community based on common human values, a difficult, but not impossible, notion to support. Hannah Arendt (1955) famously declared world citizenship impossible stating, “A citizen is by definition a citizen among citizens of a country among countries. His rights and duties must be defined and limited, not only by his fellow citizens, but also by the boundaries of a territory” (p. 81). Although a debatable claim even in her time, this statement in today’s world of interconnectivity, especially given the internet, seems easily challenged. As Osler and Starkey point out, “Citizenship is changing as citizens have greater opportunities to act in new international contexts” (p. 8). Additionally, the authors highlight international instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as examples of rights available external to states. No longer are citizen rights and duties limited by territorial boundaries, which in the 21st century amount to little more than lines on a map. As a result of this contemporary reality, Osler and Starkey reposition, indeed re-imagine, citizenship as requiring cosmopolitan vision not unlike that of Nussbaum’s. “The consequence of globalization suggests that approaches to citizenship need to be reconsidered…. We are increasingly able to make these connections [between ourselves and our identities and others and their concerns] and feel solidarity with others at local, national, regional (e.g. European) and global levels” (p. 8). Our concerns and considerations as citizens and our moral vision must extend beyond the local and even national like our very real actions and their often deleterious consequences. Osler and Starkey not only make a convincing case for cosmopolitan citizenship in such a manner, but essentially join with the likes of Blades and Richardson (2006) and declare it morally imperative. Blades and Richardson (2006) stated, “What is urgently needed is a shift towards reclaiming our civic responsibility as inhabitants of the earth: A global citizenship. Central to this new direction is the moral imperative to, in the words of Zygmund Bauman, 'restart… the interrupted discourse of the common good'" (p. 117). One crucial point the authors make is that globalizing citizenship, what they present as cosmopolitanism, does not entail erasing community or national identity. Osler and Starkey note: Cosmopolitan citizenship implies recognition of our common humanity and a sense of solidarity with others. It is insufficient, however, to feel and express a sense of solidarity with others elsewhere if we cannot establish a sense of solidarity with others in our own communities….” (p. 93) This distinction is of paramount importance to the text’s value as it effectively breaks down the too often invoked binary between global and more traditional national/local forms of citizenship, thus making "global citizenship" not only practicable but attractive. The popular slogan “act local, think global” takes on a degree of resonance and promise cast in such a light. Returning to the work of Naseem and Hyslop-Margison (2006), which criticizes both Nussbaum’s work and more generally cosmopolitanism, their claim, in précis, is that such a vision violates local sensibilities largely due to its lack of moral sophistication. Their claim is an example of the all too common binary of global versus local citizenship. For example, Naseem and Hyslop-Margison assert that in calling for moral evaluation from reason and self-evaluation, cosmopolitanism erases certain communities (e.g., Islam) which do not accept such as the basis for acquiring moral knowledge but rather turn to metaphysical beliefs or sacred texts. Although I am willing to accept that Naseem and Hyslop-Margison have identified a potentially difficult area of cosmopolitanism in theory, I nevertheless believe in a higher level sharing of human hopes, dreams and fears which do in fact transcend individual races, religions and geographical regions. In fact, to deny such seems devastatingly pessimistic for the fate of mankind. The very idea that a moral belief in the general flourishing of human life, in the dignity and worth of the human person, does not rise above certain dogmatic and situated moral codes is all the more reason to promote an ideal – such as cosmopolitanism – which aims to transcend. Believing, in the vein of Naseem and Hyslop-Margison, that we cannot build a contemporary notion of citizenship on universal human values is, essentially, to give in to the demise of humanity. If we are to live in a global village, we must require a global citizenship. Osler and Starkey make this poignant thus establishing a solid basis for advancing a cosmopolitan vision as necessary to contemporary notions of citizenship. Changing Citizenship is divided in three parts: a) Changing citizenship; b) Learning for inclusion; and c) Democratizing schools. Each part is then divided again into a series of logical and well thought out chapters making the text especially user-friendly and accessible. Following the opening section on changing citizenship – establishing a cosmopolitan vision – ones finds a natural passage to how contemporary schooling is construed in such a way as to obstruct educating for cosmopolitan, in fact merely democratic, citizenship. Osler and Starkey make clear that education as a right is fundamental to not only accessing citizenship in general, but to affecting a cosmopolitan vision among future citizens. Citizenship and education are bound up; if education is inaccessible and inadaptable, citizenship will likewise be difficult to obtain and unlikely to be open and fair to all. Osler and Starkey elucidate: In this way the struggle for the right to education can be seen as part of the struggle for citizenship. Full citizenship depends on accessing not only the right to education but a number of rights in education and through it. Thus the right to education is critical in the struggle for citizenship. It is only when schooling is made accessible, acceptable and adaptable to learners’ needs that the right to education can be realized. (p. 77) Changing Citizenship is equipped with a number of useful appendices, as well as an extensive index and up-to-date in-depth bibliography. Appendix One, The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Appendix Three, The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (selected articles) are particularly helpful as they underpin the authors' assertions throughout the book. Moreover, both of these documents allow as concrete an imaging of the cosmopolitan vision as possible. That is, they provide an approach to understanding elements of humanity which are truly shared across racial, ethnic, religious, and geographic boundaries. Most democratic societies recognize the pivotal function of schooling in educating students for their role as citizens. Indeed, as Dewey (1916) made apparent, public education can be a powerful force for either social transformation or social reproduction depending on how it is structured and carried out. In the final section of the book “Democratizing Schools,” Osler and Starkey describe the tensions between schooling and democratic practices using the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) as a backdrop. They claim, “The entitlement of all children to an education where their views are taken into consideration (article 12, CRC) and which is based on democratic dialogue is not yet realized” (p. 137). It is not just that schools do not model the human rights and democratic values which they teach within formal citizenship education but that they consistently contravene them (Alderson, 1999, as cited on p. 139). The problem of school as an undemocratic space, as highlighted by the authors, is pervasive and real. Recently, I had my own high school students write poetry on the political imprisonment of the Cuban Five. When the final drafts were complete, I suggested that we send their creative writing, distinctly imbued with their political voice, to various world leaders as part of a international call for justice in this case. My administrator was not on board claiming that “it was too sensitive of an issue and that if it were, say, global warming – something where everyone is on board – it would be different.” Thus, we should distance children from "sensitive" political issues and submerge them in popular abstractions which are safe. This is clearly at odds with the CRC and democratic education; it denies children the opportunity to engage in open, frank, and even controversial, democratic dialogue, a fundamental element of democratic living (Hyslop-Margison & Sears, 2006). This political interference by the administrator is precisely the type of educational experience which Osler and Starkey, in the concluding chapters of their book, rightly assert interferes and inhibits the fostering of democratic citizenship. As the authors note, “It is not enough to rely on the commitment of school leaders to educate for citizenship, diversity and equality” (p. 183). School administrators need support from government and community leaders in addition to proper training. In my case, clearly, the administrator was ignorant of current pedagogical approaches in educating for democratic living. The authors do illustrate, through a series of case studies mostly in Britain that educating for democratic citizenship and changing the nature of educational space is possible. The major contribution of this text to the field of citizenship education and its literature is Osler and Starkey’s carefully unfolded model of cosmopolitanism. The authors, while not entirely overcoming such common criticisms of Nussbaum's construction as those advanced by Naseem and Hyslop-Margison, do position the cosmopolitan vision as not only a practical element of citizenship education in general, but a necessary one given our contemporary reality of globalization. In summary, the authors advance cosmopolitanism beyond the realm of impossible and undesirable to a place of seriousness within the contemporary discourse of citizenship education. Also noteworthy is their treatment of "responsibilities" within the concept of citizenship as illustrated in Chapter 9. Too often we see citizenship literature centered on rights. It is important also, as the authors make clear, to educate future citizens to fulfill their responsibilities, which, in effect, guarantee and protect the rights of others. In identifying the major shortfall of this text I have to agree with Lynch (2006) who highlights the authors' neglect in addressing the current debate surrounding citizenship in feminist theory. As Lynch wrote, “Implicitly the citizen that is at the centre of analysis in this book is the public citizen, the citizen as paid worker, or migrant worker living in a public place” (2006, p. 285). Lynch rightly reveals that feminists across disciplines have shown citizenship to encompass those who are involved in unpaid labor, such as caregivers and care recipients, that citizens have lives other than the merely political such as, a personal life – a love life. Osler and Starkey fail to expand citizenship models beyond political and economic boundaries. Schools that embrace open dialogue and outward looking cosmopolitan visions, as outlined by the authors, will, undoubtedly, journey toward a more sustainable environment for democratic education. As one concerned with citizenship and democratic education, Changing Citizenship is always on my desk. This book aptly illustrates the very reality of citizenship that transcending boarders – as a cosmopolitan vision. Changing Citizenship: Democracy and Inclusion in Education is well positioned in contemporary citizenship literature, filling most especially the obvious need for an alternative view of cosmopolitanism. Osler and Starkey’s message is poignant – citizenship has changed. References Arendt, H. (1955). Men in dark times. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Blades, D. W., & Richardson, G. H. (2006). Restarting the interrupted discourse of the public good: Global citizenship education as moral imperative. In G. H. Richardson & D. W. Blades (Eds.), Troubling the canon of citizenship education (pp. 115-123). New York: Peter Lang. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education, by John Dewey. New York: The Macmillan company. Hyslop-Margison, E. J., & Sears, A. M. (2006). Neo-liberalism, globalization and human capital learning: Reclaiming education for democratic citizenship. New York: Springer. Lynch, K. (2006). Book review: Changing citizenship: Democracy and inclusion in education. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 1(3), 283-285. McLuhan, M., & Fiore, Q. (1967). The medium is the message. New York: Bantam. Naseem, A., & Hyslop-Margison, E. J. (2006). Nussbaum's concept of cosmopolitanism: Practical possibility or academic dilusion. Paideusis, 15(2), 51-60. Nussbaum, M. (1994). Patriotism and cosmopolitanism. Boston Review, XIX(5), 3-16. Schweitzer, A. (1987). The philosophy of civilization (C. T. Campion, Trans.). Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. Michael Ernest Sweet lives, writes and teaches in Montreal, Quebec. He is both a graduate student at Concordia University and founding director of The Learning for A Cause Institute (LearningforaCause.org) which explores the relationship between democracy and the imagination. Forthcoming publications include “Citizenship for Some” in the Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services.

Simmons, John. (Ed.) (2006) Breaking Through: Transforming Urban School Districts. Reviewed by Anthony H. Normore, California State University-Dominguez Hills

Simmons, John. (Ed.) (2006) Breaking Through: Transforming Urban School Districts. (Foreword by Deborah Meier) NY, NY: Teachers College Press. Pp. 264     ISBN 0-8077-4657-6 Reviewed by Anthony H. Normore California State University–Dominguez Hills October 15, 2007 In order to scale-up and sustain policies and leadership in urban school districts, there is little doubt that a transformation of the school systems themselves is necessary to improve classroom results in all schools. Without a transformation, improvements can only be incremental and piecemeal, confined only to a group of classrooms or a group of schools, rather than system-wide. Whereas smaller school districts are already applying the lessons and practices that have successfully transformed large corporate organizations in the past century – and more recently, several small school districts--large district transformation has not been achieved yet. In a recently released book entitled Breaking Through: Transforming Urban School Districts, John Simmons presents critical work that captures the many dimensions of issues in urban school district reform. Through the application of current research, Simmons illuminates what has been successful and unsuccessful in cities such as Boston, San Diego, Houston, and particularly Chicago. The book focuses on lessons learned from existing large district reform strategies used in the United States that can help close the achievement gap. The format of the book is researcher/practitioner-friendly. It is clear and easy to follow and provides an excellent source of new knowledge for all stakeholders in education who are interested in the improvement of schools in America’s urban school districts. Essentially, the contributors “engage and tease out” the complexities of sustainable change by providing powerful example of school reform processes and suggests how these can be applied to large school districts. The book has twelve chapters divided into three separate sections. In section one, four chapters are written by Simmons. In chapter one, he provides an overview of Chicago’s history and a summary of the lessons learned. The history of school reform in Chicago demonstrates the success a system can have when it draws from some of the best practices of high-performance organizations. It also highlights some of the pitfalls when the model for improvement is ineffective. Through the means of real-life case studies focused on large school district reform over the last sixteen years in Chicago, chapter two highlights the three organizing principles on which transforming large school districts rest: (a) consistency: one vision in the classroom and the central office, (b) simultaneity: work everywhere at once, and (c) quality: learn from the best. These three principles are further presented in comprehensive detail as running themes throughout all four chapters in section two. In chapter three, Simmons discusses the four fundamental strategies for rethinking how to transform the mediocre results that most districts are getting. These strategies include: (a) create leaders at every level (i.e., lessons from high performance organizations, building local leadership such as local school councils, building central office leadership, building principals), (b) transform the structure and culture of the system (i.e., lessons on structure and culture from high-performance organizations, structuring and shaping culture through local school councils, breaking down districts into smaller areas, how structural change improves instruction, and what happens when cultural change is missing), (c) improve instruction (achieving quality instruction, teacher professional development), and (d) involve parents and make funding adequate and equitable (i.e., lessons on parental support, parent engagement) (p. 51). In chapter four, emphasis is placed on how superintendents are responsible for all aspects of change and transformation processes, from the most mundane to the most elusive. Simmons presents two case studies that represent two ends of a spectrum. One illustrates “improvements in business practices, including the nuts and bolts of procurement” (p. 57) while the other case reveals the difficulties with getting a wide constituency to engage and support change. Simmons summarizes in a table the differences and commonalities among all several big-city superintendents as they developed strategies for transforming their school districts. In the second section of the book, leading authors in the field present and discuss the four key strategies for leading transformation of a school district and turn to specific models for beginning to close the gap in student achievement. The section is replete with essays spread throughout four chapters in which we find various scholars who spent years working in, studying, and consulting to large organizations and school systems. These essays focus on the different expert strategies used for accelerating change of school districts. The authors suggest that an outcome of accelerated change is achieved by creating more effective leaders at every level. In essay one of chapter five, Codding and Tucker offer strategies for transforming school leadership. With a high percentage of school principals leaving the profession and a national crisis in the number of teachers interested in this position, districts must revamp and strengthen recruitment and training efforts to ensure schools are led by effective school leaders. The second essay focuses on professional development of school leaders. Peterson and Kelley describe several models of professional development and discuss issues and ideas for improving the training of school leaders who serve as instructional and organizational leaders. In essay three, Susan Moore Johnson asserts that collaborative and cooperative leadership is the key to sustained education reform (p. 85). By looking at three district leadership models (i.e., laissez-faire, management, top-down control, and collaborative leadership), she emphasizes how important it is for the superintendent to take on this role, to ensure accountability for themselves and demand accountability from others. Chapter six contains seven essays. Elmore offers seven principles of actions, accountability, instruction and improvement. These principles push against the existing pattern of school reform and school culture. The author asserts that these principles can be used to design school reform strategies that break the old pattern. In the second essay, Dolan discusses why organizations cannot learn. The author examines various reform strategies, identifies what prevents these reforms from being successful, and offers a framework for assisting school systems how to not “make the same mistakes’ (p. 102). In the third essay, Simmons and Karasik present the Edmonton reform model – a model used throughout the world based on school site decision making. As a result of an interview with the superintendent, these authors describe the Edmonton reform model and share some of the advantages and pitfalls of this model today. Fullan, in the fourth essay, outlines several strategies for overcoming dysfunctional infrastructures so educators can focus on systemic reform (p.115). The author describes the problems and promises of whole school and system-wide reform (i.e., school capacity, infrastructures). In essay five, Wallen and Goldberger examine factors that determine America’s ability to deliver quality early education programs and care that meet the needs of young children before they enter school. These authors offer an action plan to superintendents, as they partner with the community, to plan and provide the necessary information and resources to prepare young children for success in school. In essay six, Lee highlights the differences between restructured schools and traditionally structure schools as these differences pertain to the fundamental outcomes of equity and excellence. Under the sponsorship of the Center of the Organization and Restructuring of Schools (CORS), the author and her colleague analyzed a nationally representative sample of nearly 800 U.S. high schools using data collected by the National Center for Educational Statistics. They found that students learned more in highly restructured schools, learning was more equitably distributed and less stratified by socioeconomic status in restructured schools, learning dropped off when schools adopted too many restructuring practices, and restructuring effects were sustained over students’ four years in high school (p. 129). In the final essay of chapter six, Urbanski explores the relationship between school leaders and the teachers union. The author offers various recommendations for building labor-management collaboration and focusing it on improving student achievement. Among the recommendations are the following: (a) negotiate “living contracts”, (b) improve teacher quality, (c) develop a system of differentiated staffing and differential pay for teachers, (d) develop a system of professional accountability, (e) develop a system of incentives, and (f) make public schools more like private schools (pp. 134-144). Three essays devoted to improving the quality of instruction make up chapter seven. In the first essay, Darling-Hammond examines the major problems and issues in several areas related to teacher preparation. She identifies the causes of poor quality teaching and offers an overview of the strategies and their outcomes to date for addressing these issues – especially for the more underserved student populations. The author suggests that successful school districts (a) engage in more aggressive teacher recruitment efforts, and do it early, (b) set competitive salaries and allocate resources to teaching, (c) provide mentoring for new teachers and professional development for all teachers, (d) ensure good working conditions, and (f) design schools that support strong teacher-student relationships (p. 167). The second essay focuses on Danielson’s suggested framework for teaching that promotes improved teacher quality. Danielson asserts that “school districts have little chance of improving student learning without attending to the quality of teaching…and they can’t improve teaching quality unless they operate within a common definition of what quality instruction is” (p. 168). In the final essay of chapter seven, Jamentz outlines what districts and communities can do to cultivate accountability. She offers six strategies that include: (a) articulate standards for student performance, (b) use professional development, (c) invest in quality assessments, (d) de-privatize instruction, (e) engage the larger public, and (f) define standards for adult performance (p. 176). Chapter eight entails two chapters dedicated to building effective support with parents and funding. In essay one, Goldberger identifies the characteristics of effective parent engagement programs and highlights three models that have proved to be successful. The three models identified as “best practice” models include the teacher-parent collaboration program in Central Park East, New York City; National Network of Partnership Schools that emanated from research at Johns Hopkins University; and The Alliance Schools which use the Industrial Areas Foundation model of community and parent engagement (p. 190). Odden focuses on education reform and school finance in the second essay. The author presents three approaches to adequate school finance (expenditure and performance approach, cost function approach, and evidence-based approach) and offers suggestions for ensuring that schools receive the adequate funding. In section three of the book, Simmons explores a process for redesigning systems that has worked successfully in high-performing corporate organizations and how this process – known as the Z Process (i.e., readiness, redesign, implement and improve) - has also worked in several small school districts. The central premise of chapter nine focuses on three studies (i.e., Foundations for Success; An Impossible Job: The View from the Urban Superintendent’s Chair; and The Annenburg Institute for School Reform’s “Smart District”). These studies identify the current issues with large district reform, and what happens when "best practice" is not enough. Highlighted also are the difficulties that any district will have unless it confronts the fact that schools will not be substantially improved without change to the system itself. In chapter ten, Simmons offers fourteen points, based on Deming’s fourteen points to school reform, for continuous improvement in education. Such improvements will require a high-performance paradigm shift. Chapter eleven provides a comprehensive overview about how the three phases of the Z Process work. Simmons asserts that “when it comes to organizational improvement… how you make change is even more important than the change you make. If the stakeholders do not participate adequately in the process, they will not develop the understanding and ownership that they need to make the change work” (p. 224). The Z Process best captures the process for transforming organizations that has been used by organizations around the world. The phases of the process include: (a) preparing the leadership for change (readiness), (b) developing action plans within and across departments (redesign), and (c) implementing the redesign and continuously improving it (p. 224). In the final brief chapter, Simmons notes how important it is for district leaders “and all parties with a stake in school reform to begin looking through the lens of systemic organizational change, to start thinking about how to take the next step toward system overhaul, and, finally, to act” (p. 236). Breaking Through: Transforming Urban School Districts, is valuable and insightful. Its recommendations are presented with rigor and thought. It offers hope for the creation of school districts that truly serve all their students and provides powerful strategies for closing the achievement gap. It is especially recommended by this reviewer to “every leader at every level” including district administrators, policymakers, and public officials who are interested in further understanding the transformation of urban schools and who wish to design better options for the districts they serve. School-site leaders, teachers, parents, and educational consultants can also benefit from it. Furthermore, the book ought to be considered as a resource for college leadership preparation, certification, and training programs. This book can undoubtedly serve as a critical guide for those who have dedicated themselves to “the daunting task of teaching children and improving schools in our nation’s urban districts” (p. xiv). About the Reviewer Anthony H. Normore Associate Professor, Graduate Education Division Educational Administration/Leadership Program Room 1447, College of Education California State University-Dominguez Hills 1000 E. Victoria Street, Carson (Los Angeles), CA 90747

Gilbert, John. (Ed.) (2004). The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Science Education. Reviewed by Natalie Zayas-Robinson, California State University, Monterey Bay

Gilbert, John. (Ed.) (2004). The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Science Education. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Pp. 278         ISBN 0415327784 Reviewed by Natalie Zayas-Robinson California State University, Monterey Bay October 18, 2007 The RoutledgeFalmerReader in Science Education is a compilation of writings on various topics such as: Pressures exerted on science education such as globalization The relationship between economics and science education Scientific literacy. Maintaining achievement in science education through frameworks for improving science teaching and learning, using Vygotsky to understand how teachers talk and create meaning Argumentation as pedagogy Using multimedia to help students learn science Trends in science education at a national level where communication with the public is addressed How religion can effect how a student learns science Assessments Initiatives within science education such as; politics, involvement by corporations, pedagogy, barriers to science education, and environmental education Managing change: planning and coping with change and a model for professional development is given and examined. Within the book various authors review research studies and data to provide a better understanding of science education from a global perspective. Many questions are posed giving aspiring researchers, as well as seasoned researchers, many avenues for future research and possibilities to increase the knowledge in the field of science education. The book is useful to pre-service teachers and practicing teachers as well as for graduate programs of study in science education and environmental education. John Gilbert starts off the book with a chapter, not included in the table of contents, entitled, “Science Education: Global or national?” (pp. 1-12). Within this chapter readers are given background information on how the selections for the book took place. Forty requests were sent out to different countries, thirty-eight were received from 14 countries. The question in the request was, “What do you perceive to be the most important current and future issues in science education, especially in your country?”(p.1). Gilbert states that 30 different issues were identified. In order to decide which issues to cover in one book two criterion were used to narrow down the issues. These were (1) was a particular issue likely to be of interest to a world-wide readership?” and (2) “were high-grade articles available on an issue that combined thorough scholarship with a treatment that was not set too firmly in any one national context?” (p.1). The first was not a good discriminator as all of the issues seemed to be of interest. The second, however, was a good screening question and allowed those selecting issues to become more discerning. Two questions were then posed to help create a framework for choosing articles to include in the book. These were as follows: “Is science education a global phenomenon, with the similarities between curricula, teaching methods and assessment procedures far more important than their differences?” “Is science education distinctive in any one country, so that a world-wide perspective is the sum of national provisions?” (p.1). Gilbert continues to explain how differing countries do share commonalities between curricula, teaching and assessment practices; however, there are different national concerns that drive science education. Gilbert then sets the stage for the rest of the book giving background information for each section and chapters within the sections. The reader is given thought provoking information such as in Gilbert’s overview of science and religion when he states that Islamic science is guided by environmental ethics. “Islam is seen as exercising stewardship over nature and the socio-cultural environment. This sets the agenda for science. Science education would therefore focus on the protection of the environment and the perpetuation of sustainable development” (p.5). Gilbert also ties in religious beliefs to culture and how both can affect science education when he discusses “Science education in other world-views” (p.5). He points out that everyone has a world view that is based on culture and experiences and reminds us that our worldview, “governs what knowledge a person is likely to find acceptable and therefore learn and use” (p.5). These are things many people know but do not always consider. Throughout the book there are questions and statements that can lead to further research in the field of science education. One such statement shows up early on in Gilbert’s overview when he is discussing teaching science. He states, “Yet we have little evidence on the ways that textbooks are used by teachers and students or on the consequences of extensive reliance on them” (p. 9). As I read this book I marked these types of statements as points to consider for research, for ideas for students looking for research topics, and to watch for studies on such topics from other researchers. Gilbert wraps up his overview of the book with a list of nine themes from Leonie Rennie and her colleagues that remind us that science education is about making curriculum relevant to the students needs, it is about inquiry, should provide careers and be relevant to the community. Throughout the book readers are referred to additional sources for more information. In the case of Leonie Rennie and her colleagues nine themes Gilbert refers readers to the source, Goodrum, 2001. Each chapter has an extensive list of references for further study. After reading Gilbert’s overview of the book, as a reader I found myself wanting to read each and every chapter right away. Yet as I began to read I found myself so engrossed in each chapter taking notes and looking up other sources that I would finish a chapter full of information, in some way sad that the chapter had ended, only to be enthralled that there was yet another chapter full of great information to come. This book review will review chapter by chapter. Part I: Some pressures being exerted on science education Each part of the book begins with an editor’s introduction. This part consists of three chapters: (1) Globalization and education: an introduction, (2) Science education and economic development; trends, relationships, and research agenda, and (3) Scientific Literacy. In the Editor’s Introduction readers are given questions to consider while reading the chapters. This sets a tone for each chapter and engages the reader. These questions could easily be used in courses on science education if addressing any of the topics within the chapters. The questions are thought-provoking and often reflective in nature. Examples are a thought-provoking question, “To what extent does science education, as currently provided and experienced, support a flexibility of response to changing circumstances, the ability to coexist with others, the development of a sense of identity? (p. 13). A more reflective question, “If you were seeking a greater impact on economic development, what changes would you make to both policy and practice in science education? (p.14). And perhaps a question that could be turned into a research project, “Would any policy changes be welcomed by teachers?” (p.14). Each part of the book is started in this manner gearing the readers thoughts for what they are about to read and learn. Chapter 1: Globalization and Education by Nicholas C. Burbules and Carlos Alberto Torres Burbules and Torres discuss economic restructuring and globalization in regards to science education. They start by discussing some history of economic restructuring in the seventies due to neo-liberal politics. In just six pages they cover quite of bit material. If a reader is not well versed in economics or globalization, let alone the two together, Burbules and Torres help make sense of it all. The have a bulleted list of the “crucial characteristics of globalization” (p.16). Within this list these characteristics are viewed through economic terms, political terms, and cultural terms. With some framework of how globalization and economic restructuring relate, they then take their readers into globalization and the state-education relationship. They discuss economic restructuring in educational terms. They state that in areas of educational policy this is problematic as most states and educational institutions do not seem to agree with each other. They discuss how most educational responses to educational decision-making are done by groups such as teacher unions or critical intellectuals and are in opposition to such policies as vouchers. The conclusion of this chapter is powerful. The authors discuss corporate influence on education and how neoliberalism has affected education systems. Preparation for work versus education for the sake of education and for developing critical thinkers is discussed. The authors discuss how corporations are sponsoring curriculum and therefore commercializing education. With neoliberalism taxes have dropped hence directly affecting the money going into educational systems. The authors also discuss how multiculturism in light of globalization can affect education. They state, “To the degree that education can help support the evolving construction of the self and, at a more general level, the constitution of identities, how can multiculturalism as a social movement, as a citizenship education, and as an antiracist philosophy in curriculum intervene in the dynamics of social conflict emerging between global transformations and local responses?” (p.19). The authors wrap up this chapter by leaving the reader with two points and questions to consider: Given the decreasing role and influence of the nation-state in unilaterally determining domestic policies, and given the fiscal crisis of public revenues inmost societies, there will be a corresponding decline in the state’s commitment to educational opportunity and equality, or whether will simply be a greater turn toward the market, privatization, and choice models that regard the public as consumers who will only obtain the education they can afford. Will these changes produce an overall decline in the civic commitment to public education itself? The troubles that educational systems experience today, which are not all related to the processes of globalization, signal a more deeply felt and decisive dilemma in developed and developing societies: the question of governability in the face of increasing diversity, permeable border and an explosion in worldwide mobility; and media and technology that create wholly new conditions shaping affiliation and identification. What is the role of education in helping to shape the attitudes, values, and understandings of a multicultural democratic citizen who can be part of this increasingly cosmopolitan world? (p. 20). Chapter 2: Science Education and Economic Development: Trends, relationships, and research agenda, by Gili S. Drori This chapter begins with a brief history of how and why global attention turned toward science education. In the 1970s countries turned their attention to promoting science and technology as “the foundations for a prosperous national economy” (p. 22). The Year of Science for Development was declared in 1980. Science and Math were being included as fundamental parts of a solid, liberal education. Science education began to expand. Drori continues on to give statistics from countries showing how not only was science education expanding, but instruction time was increasing globally. To show how science education is related to economic development and economic development is dependent on science education, he quotes Norman Augustine, the CEO and President of Lockheed-Martin as saying, “more and more we see that competition in the international marketplace is in reality a battle of the classrooms” (p. 24). Drori relates this expansion to economic development when on page 24 he states, “the science education for development policy model praises education, and particularly science education, as a requirement for any modern, civilized, economically-vibrant nation-state.” A question for education is, “do we create science education in order to stimulate and expand economies, or do we create science education that creates scientifically literate, critically thinking individuals?” Drori addresses this when he poses questions about science education and economies and he states that some studies show that science education does contribute to greater economic development, some show it hinders economic development, and some show there is no relationship. He states that the methodology of the studies varied and he goes more in depth into comparing the empirical studies. He dissects the studies and points out such things as science education needs to be directly aligned with economic needs in order to have an impact on economic development, that some studies use data that is not consistent, and other studies look into family background and how that relates to science education. In this chapter Drori takes an extensive look into various studies and could be an excellent chapter to use for a research methods course in science education. Students would be shown how to critically examine a research study and at the same time learn how to design a study to attempt to avoid some of the problems Drori points out. Drori concludes the chapter with stating that he does not mean to suggest that all studies be revoked but instead the methodological “points of contention” be solved by future studies. (p. 34). Chapter 3: Scientific Literacy by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development As I read this chapter the following questions came to mind, if science education focused on creating more scientifically literate individuals, couldn’t economies flourish, or would scientifically literate individuals see through advertising and hence, purchase less leading to a lack of consumerism? Would more scientifically literate individuals see sustainability as important and strive to support natural systems instead of consumerism that destroys natural systems? Yet can’t sustainability lead to economic development, just a different economic development than we currently have?” Whatever questions a reader poses while reading this chapter, the chapter provides a solid understanding of what scientific literacy is and how it can be created within a school system, and how it can be assessed. This chapter presents definitions of scientific literacy from Einstein to Hawkings, to reports done by researchers and from organizations like UNESCO. Levels of scientific literacy are given, much like Blooms Taxonomy. The levels are broken down to show how students progress from level to level. Illustrations are provided to give easy to read lists of scientific processes, as well as themes that can be used to assess scientific literacy. For example, processes are listed as: Recognizing scientifically investigable questions Identifying evidence needed in a scientific investigation Drawing or evaluating conclusions Communicating valid conclusions Demonstrating understanding of scientific concepts (p. 43) Themes include biodiversity, ecosystems, genetic control, energy transformations, chemical and physical changes (p. 46). This chapter shows that through any subject matter in science, scientific literacy can be a goal. Another helpful section in this chapter is that of assessment. A table is provided showing a recommended distribution of score points across science processes and in the areas of application (life and health, earth and environment, technology) (pp. 48-49). This chapter is useful to practioners, students, researchers, and even education departments interested in creating standards for school systems. The chapter does not directly relate scientific literacy to economic development as is the theme of the preceding two chapters, but the reader must keep in mind that the overall theme of the section is pressures exerted on science education and a prevailing theme in science education is creating scientifically literate individuals. The preceding chapters and some that follow help the reader think of scientific literacy and how being scientifically literate relates to economics locally and globally. Part II: Maintaining a Continuity of Achievement in Science Education This part of the book “addresses some of the major achievements of scholarship, research and development in science education over recent years” (Gilbert, p. 53). Again Gilbert gives brief overviews of the next three chapters to set the stage for the reader. This overview is also helpful if using this book as a text, as instructors can easily scan for relevant chapters for their course. Again readers are reminded that many sources are pointed out for further reading in this book, one for this section being, “most disturbingly, they (Duit and Treagust in reviewing studies) review evidence that all the great volume of detailed work on this field has had very limited impact on classroom practice. Perhaps, ‘action research’ – discussed in Chapter 18 – offers a way of overcoming this huge problem” (p. 53). For more reading on this readers can go to Duit and Tragust’s book. As a graduate student myself, I found this book full of sources all in one place making my research easier. Again Gilbert also poses questions to consider while reading the following chapters which again are useful for use in a classroom or for researchers to consider. Chapters in this section are as follows: Conceptual Change – A Powerful Framework for Improving Science Teaching and Learning, Teacher Talk and Meaning Making in Science classrooms: A Vygotskian analysis and review, The Place of Argumentation in the Pedagogy of School Science, and Interactive Multimedia and Model-Based Learning in Biology Chapter 4: Conceptual Change – A Powerful Framework for Improving Science Teaching and Learning by Reinders Duit and David F. Treagust This chapter reviews research that looked into the roles of learners and that of teachers. A brief history of teaching and learning is given and the authors point out that in the 1980s Constructivism and ideas from cognitive psychology began to play important roles in teaching and learning in science education. The authors discuss how research in science education and research in cognitive psychology were disjointed, but that Sinatra and Pintrisch’s (2003) attempted to bring these two areas together to show how they can work together. The main objective of this chapter is to help bring the domains of science education and cognitive psychology together by getting researchers to reference each other’s work. The authors provide a clarifying description of conceptual change and sum it up by stating that conceptual change has become a term which denotes learning science from a constructivist perspective (p. 58). They then discuss conceptual change from an epistemological position giving the reader information on many studies done in this area. Conceptual change models that are based in Piagetian ideas, “have proven superior to more traditionally-oriented approaches in a number of studies” (p. 59). Limits of the classical conceptual change approaches are discussed and it is pointed out that there are limited studies to test student conceptual knowledge in environment science, technology, and socio-scientific content. This again can lead researchers to ideas for new research to help further the field of science education. An important section of this chapter is “Bridging the gap between research findings on conceptual change and instructional practices” (p. 68). A downfall between research and practice is that the theory-practice gap has widened. In order to close this gap, the authors suggest that the theories need to be made more simple and teacher professional development in how to use conceptual change theories in the classroom. Chapter 5: Teacher Talk and Meaning Making in Science classrooms: A Vygotskian analysis and review by Philip Scott This chapter covers research that has been done in the area of teacher – student interactions and also covers student-student interactions to show how meaning can be created through such interactions. Vygotskian principles are used to review the literature for this chapter, especially Vygotsky’s socio-cultural approach. In this socio-cultural approach is the claim that “higher mental functioning in the individual derives from social life” (p. 75). This is used in this chapter to show how individuals develop new understanding or meaning in science classrooms through discourse. This chapter provides information on how to analyze discourse and pedagogical interventions teachers can implement to provide discourse that will help students create new meanings of the science they are learning. This chapter would be an excellent reading for a pre-service teacher course or used in a graduate program for teachers as it provides many strategies for using discourse and backs up the strategies with research findings. The main area of research reviewed in this chapter is that of using stories to encourage discourse, transform student knowledge, and teach science concepts after gaining student interest (via the story). Another area of research reviewed that has shown positive results in transforming student knowledge in science is in student’s “doing” science and/or math. The “doing” when labs are conducted with “open-inquiry” gives students decision making power and allows them to work together, creating powerful discourse. The authors also discuss using univocal and dialogic discourse and discuss the pros and cons of each and how the two can work together to help transform student knowledge when used in balance. Scaffolding is also discussed as a method to transform student knowledge. The authors point out that over the years scaffolding has become a buzz word and many do not use it in its true educational meaning. When used properly, the authors discuss how it is a powerful method of transforming student knowledge. Chapter 6: The Place of Argumentation in the Pedagogy of School Science by Paul Newton, Rosalind Driver and Jonathan Osborne This chapter reviews studies that show how argumentation (or discussions) can be used in classrooms, the benefits of them, and why teachers do not use them. The authors give Toulmin’s (1958) 4 main types of statements which contribute to an argument as (1) claims, (2) grounds, (3) warrants, and (4) backings, and explain each. The authors present a good argument on why argument belongs in the science classroom. “As science is a social process involving the sharing of ideas, the key of science then becomes the evaluation of conjectures in the light of evidence” (p. 99). Studies are discussed that show how argument can help in the learning of science. As students do science they then must argue their own claims which in turn increases their knowledge in how science functions but also increases the discourse so important to overall understand and meaning forming. Teachers were brought into research to find out how they used argument, why, and if they didn’t, why not. What was found was that teachers lacked time. Discussions take time and teachers are trying to teach all of the content with the National Curriculum. Attempting to get all that content in has decreased the time available for students to truly learn and form meaning. Managing discussions was another problem teachers pointed out. Discipline becomes a major issue and teachers tend to try to avoid such problems. Motivating students to participate is also noted as a problem. Other issues were teacher’s skills to manage a discussion and students feeling that discussion in science was not giving them the knowledge they needed. The authors explore three models of teaching and learning in light of the observational study on teacher’s views on using discussions within the science classroom. They then discuss change in education relating to National Curriculum, teacher preparation, and professional development. This chapter seems useful to those in teacher education, educational reformers, and researchers interested in furthering research on discourse in the science classroom. Chapter 7: Interactive Multimedia and Model-Based Learning in Biology by Barbara C. Buckley This chapter discusses a project, ‘Science for Living: The Circulatory System’ also referred to as SFL. One student’s journey through this program was selected to discuss for this chapter. The SFL program is a technology program designed for tenth grade biology. Students are given a pre-test so the prior knowledge is assessed before the program begins and assessed after to see what they gained from using the program. Students create multimedia projects over a three week period. This chapter reveals how model-based learning can be used effectively in biology. The authors preface the chapter by giving the reader working definitions of terms used in the study, as well as explaining the model-based learning framework used. They then give an explanation of why it is difficult for students to learn biological phenomena. They explain that specifically the circulatory system is a complex interactive system with many levels and is hard to conceptualize. Much of the system is not visible to the unaided eye and many students never get to “see” these parts of the system making it difficult to understand. Misconceptions then develop in the mind of the learner. At this point the authors discuss why using conceptual models is important to the learning process. They point out the positive and negative aspects of using conceptual models. For example, the use of interactive multimedia enables new ways of overcoming some of the challenges of representing biological phenomena. It allows the inclusion and integration of different kinds of representations linked and structured in a multitude of ways, presumably supporting learners with diverse aptitudes and preferences for particular representational modes. However, research has shown that it also presents cognitive and meta-cognitive challenges because learners must direct their own learning as well as understand the various representations and how they relate to each other (p.113). The authors state that this study attempted to answer the questions, “what is the nature and extent of student learning about the circulatory system when they have access to SFL? How do they go about their learning? What role do the representations in SFL and its interface play?” (p. 114). From here the chapter outlines the program, giving in depth explanations of the methods, the pre-test results and how they related to resulting knowledge, retention of knowledge, how data was analyzed, the analysis of the project, the images, how students interacted with the program, and how the models were formed. They also explain how models were revised based on this study. The authors give an in depth discussion, implications of their study and how it relates to theory development and the design of learning environments. There is a section on future research and a conclusion. This chapter could be used by practioners who want to use model-based learning, by instructors to help students learn how to do research, write up a research study, and critically review a research study; by researchers who would like to further this research. This chapter is long, but thorough and provides many avenues for others to learn and expand such programs and research. Part III: Trends in Science Education at National Level Again the editor gives the reader an overview of the chapters for this section. Questions for thought are posed. The editor introductions to the parts of the book are helpful to refer back to before reading a specific chapter. I suggest reading the introduction, proceeding to the next chapter, then revisiting the introduction to re-read the introduction for the next chapter to focus your attention to the questions the editor poses. After each chapter I am full of information and questions and re-reading the introduction section for the next chapter I am about to read focuses my thoughts to that chapter. This book if truly full of information and resources to allow readers to venture into more reading and learning. Chapters in this section areas follows: Science Communication with the Public: A cross-cultural event, The Interaction of Students’ Scientific and Religious Discourses: Two case studies, and Purposes for Assessment Chapter 8: Science Communication with the Public: A cross-cultural event by G.S. Aikenhead This chapter addresses communicating science with the public but has the reader consider how culture plays into how we communicate and how that communication is perceived. The author takes the reader through a lesson in culture tying in anthropology. Various definitions of culture are given and then a discussion of science as a culture unfolds. This section has the reader consider how science is a culture of its own and how other cultures one experiences affects how one perceives science, learns science, and can understand science. The author discusses “border crossing” which is when we jump from culture to culture as we do often in daily life. The author discusses how some people do this smoothly and others struggle with this. Advice is given for the science communicator to help ease border crossing. One example is, “Border crossing into the culture of science can be made smoother for the public if science communicators know the culture of the everyday world of the public, and can contrast that culture with a critical analysis of the culture of science. But even more, a science communicator must consciously move back and forth between the publics everyday world and the scientists’ world” (p. 152). Border crossing, culture, and misconceptions that can occur between the science communicator and the pubic are discussed. The focus is mostly on Western science and the author makes that clear. The mechanistic view of Western science is shown to be part of the reason why border crossing is so difficult. The ideas of memorization for the sake of gaining knowledge is scoffed while the idea of learning by doing and applying to everyday life is shown to reach more learners. A very helpful section for science communicators is that on “Western science and non-Western cultures” (p. 156). The ideas of aboriginal cultures, Japanese culture, and Islamic culture are discussed in relation to that of Western Science. These six pages of the chapter are enlightening for science educators. The author concludes the chapter by calling science educators, or communicators, “culture brokers” and emphasizes the importance of sensitivity to ideas, beliefs, and communication. This chapter shows why culture courses should be taught in all teacher education programs so people become more aware of the various beliefs and ideas they will encounter as science educators. Chapter 9: The Interaction of Students’ Scientific and Religious Discourses: Two case studies by Wolff-Michael Roth and Todd Alexander This chapter relates well to Chapter 8, as religion can be a huge barrier in “border crossing” between ones culture and the culture of science. In this chapter two cases studies are discussed showing how students learn science, or do not learn science, due to their religious views and the conflicts they encounter between learning science and that of their religious views. One of the students in the study became a co-author in this study. He asked if he could do this as a way of learning more about how others viewed science and religion. Two students are discussed in this chapter, one who grew up in a household where science and religion were both part of his life and another who grew up in a household where science and his strong religious views clashed. As a result of this he had a difficult time learning science and his science grades were lower than those of his other courses. Throughout the chapter the views of each student are discussed ranging from the first student who was able to integrate science and religion as he did not take the bible literally and the other student who struggled with science since the bible seemed to be his only factual evidence. He stated, “We know that God exists, because of all the miracles that He has done in the past. History and the Bible say that He is the person that made the Red Sea go apart, He is the one who multiplied the bread and the wine. This is why we believe that there is God.” Yet he also states that is hard for him to understand why he believes in God, “I can’t touch Him, I can’t see him” (p.183). These statements clearly show the struggle students can have when learning science. This relates again back to Chapter 8 for the science educator to be aware of such dilemmas in student’s ability to “border cross.” The study concludes with the problems of teachers not having enough time to develop mediation devices to help students deal with these struggles. Teachers realize this is a problem but are stuck in teaching content, which they do not have enough time for. The authors conclude that perhaps there needs to be a special course that helps students engage in a “philosophy-of-wisdom inquiry in which the discourses of music, literature, drama, politics, science, religion and philosophy are treated at the same level” (p.185). The authors state that they are not advocating that every student become a scientist nor a Christian but that perhaps a course where science is treated as a form of inquiry in the world could help students see science as it is and be able to incorporate it into their knowledge base. After reading chapter 8 I could not help but wonder why in teacher development programs and pre-service teacher programs techniques on “border crossing” couldn’t be implemented so teachers were aware of such issues and incorporated them into their everyday teaching. Again another great chapter for practioners, pre-service teachers, graduate students, those teaching teachers and those involved in professional development. Chapter 10: Purposes for Assessment by P. Black Three purposes for assessment are discussed in this chapter, support of learning, reporting the achievements of individuals, and satisfying demands for public accountability. Of all the chapters in this book, I found this one to be the driest, however, for those involved in assessment or just learning about assessment this would be a valuable chapter. However, when the discussion turned to looking at other factors involved in test scores, my attention was caught. Definitions of formative and summative assessments are given with clear reasons why each of these is performed and important. An excellent and important section in this chapter is that of “Accountability” on page 194. The author discusses correlations between low budgets, language barriers, and large class sizes on test scores and how so often these things are not considered when reporting test scores for schools. If these items are considered when reporting test scores then perhaps districts or states should look at actions that could be taken to help remedy the problems, such as increasing budgets, smaller class sizes, more assistants in a class. The author alludes to test scores and the variables being used to influence policy. In relation to teacher performance and schools being judged by test scores then again these variables should be taken into consideration. The author states that “value-added data” should be included with test scores. Value added data being that of intake test results and later attainment (p. 195). Showing student improvement would be a much better indicator of a teacher’s performance and that of the entire school. The author gives readers a reference (Gray, 1996) to refer to for further reading on judging school effectiveness. The author then goes into how sampling surveys can help to inform policy at a lower cost citing the effectiveness of sampling surveys done in the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand. This chapter is short but to the point and a bulleted list is given at the end to summarize the main purposes of assessment clearly showing the differences between formative and summative assessments and how each has their place in educational systems. Part IV: Some Initiatives from Within Science Education Part IV deals with science education as a way of educating for democracy, political literacy and environmental literacy. Sustainability and social justice are themes that shine through both chapters in Part IV. Again the editor provides the reader a framework for reading the next chapters and questions to consider. The two chapters in this section are; Time for Action: Science education for an alternative future and Mutualism: A different agenda fro environmental and science education. Chapter 11 Time for Action: Science education for an alternative future by Derek Hodson The almost 22 pages of this chapter cover a brief history of science education, ways that scientific literacy is defined by various organizations such as the AAAS and OECD, and pedagogy. Constructivism comes through as a method of teaching for retention versus the rote memorization method. The author discusses factors that can shape and drive change in science education on page 205. He discusses how society and the expectations of society will drive the change. He discusses culture and ethnicity and technology as major factors for change. The author brings up environmental education and why it is becoming, and should continue to become an important part of science education. He states, In previous generations we have been able to predict the kind of knowledge, skills and attitudes that students currently in school would need for a lifetime of employment. Now for the first time in history we are educating students for a life in a world about which we know very little except hat it will be characterized by substantial and rapid change, and is likely to be more complex and uncertain that today’s world (p.206). For this reason, the rest of the chapter covers why environmental science, linking business, economics and politics is important to include in science education. He discusses how science has been taught by discipline and that there has been very little integration, but to make science more meaningful to students and the changing world, integration is key. By integrating the disciplines and including economics, politics, and societal concerns, and teaching using an issues-based approach, science can become more concrete for students instead of being abstract to them. The author brings in why political literacy is also important in a world run by corporations. He quotes Edmund O’Sullivan (1999): Our present educational institutions which are in line with and feeding into industrialism, nationalism, competitive transnationalism, individualism, and patriarchy must be fundamentally put into question. All of these elements together coalesce into a world view that exacerbates the crisis we are now facing (p. 27). Teaching for social justice, citizenship education, and teaching for a more humane society are themes that come through the entire chapter. To reinforce how this can be done, the author outlines four levels that students can be taken through using an issues-based approach. By using case studies that address global and local issues that effect society such as pollution, health concerns, and energy resources and consumption students learn the science, yet also see how science, technology, economics, and politics are all interrelated. Ethics and social responsibility come through in this method of teaching and learning also. The four levels are defined as: Level 1: Appreciating the societal impact of scientific and technological change, and recognizing that science and technology are, to some extent, culturally determined. Level 2: Recognizing that decisions about scientific and technological development are taken in pursuit of particular interests, and that benefits accruing to some may beat the expense of others. Recognizing that scientific and technological developments are inextricably linked with the distribution of wealth and power. Level 3: Developing one’s own views and establishing one’s own underlying value positions. Level 4: Preparing for and taking action (p. 213). Ways to take action and elements of such a curriculum are discussed in length. Systems thinking is brought into the discussion and the author quotes Capra as he is able to show how and why systems thinking is critical to one’s world view. As with most change ideas there are barriers and resistance and the author takes the time to discuss how students, parents and school systems may feel about such change. He also discusses how Action Research can be a useful tool in helping teachers and others in school systems see how such change can be successful. To support his views he discusses a series of action research projects done in Ontario. Over two academic years teachers worked with researchers. The author gives the reader the reference to look up and read more about these projects, Hodson, Bencze, Nyhof-Young, Pedretti and Elshof (2002), again showing how this book is useful for further reading and studies into educational change. This chapter is so full of information for researchers, graduate students, pre-service teachers, and practicing teachers. The author gives helpful information, but also references for more studies, as well as ideas for further research and ideas for thought and discussion that would be useful in education courses. Chapter 12: Mutualism: A different agenda for environmental and science education by Annette Gough Keeping with the theme of educational change and bringing in the perspective of environmental education, this chapter reinforces the ideas in chapter 11, and gives new information for more thought and action. This chapter begins with a history of environmental education, setting the stage for the reader if they are not aware of the history, goals and objectives of environmental education. The differences between science education and environmental education are discussed with social issues (included in environmental education but so often left out of science education) being the key difference. Why science education and environmental education have not fully integrated with each other and how this can be done is the key theme of this chapter. The author uses the concept of symbiosis to show how science education and environmental education have been competitive predator-prey and host-parasite relationships and she discusses why mutualism is the better relationship for the two entities to bring about needed change in education. Student interest in science has dropped and the author gives statistics and reasons for this, however, interest in the environmental has increased and the author states why this is a good time for science education and environmental education to come together in order to spark interest in students in science. “Environmental education might be an appropriate emphasis for rekindling student’s interest in the relevance of science because young people are concerned about the state of the environment” (p. 231). The author gives five reasons why science education remains stuck in separate disciplines being taught the same way. One is that the global trend for standardized curriculum and reporting has meant that teachers do not have the time/space in the curriculum to plan their own curriculum. Second, the curriculum has been driven/designed mostly by scientists whose priorities are for tertiary studies instead of student interest. Third, many teachers see environmental education as yet another pressure for inclusion, when the curriculum is already overcrowded. Fourth, some science teachers are “disciplinary chauvinists” who put priority on teaching content from their discipline. And fifth, is the question, do science teachers understand environmental education as it is understood by environmental educators? (pp. 234-235). The main emphasis of the chapter, however, is why science education and environmental education need to become mutualistic. The author sums this up when she states, Science education needs environmental education to reassert itself in the curriculum by making science seem appropriate to a wider range of students and making it more culturally and socially relevant. Environmental education needs science education to underpin the achievement of its objectives and to provide it with a legitimate space in the curriculum to meet its goals because they are very unlikely to be achieved from the margins (p. 237). Part V: Managing Change in Science Education The final section of this book discusses how change can occur. Two chapters in this section are provided to help the reader consider how change can actually occur. In educational reform there are many great ideas that never come about. The first chapter in this section, Planning, Doing, and Coping with Change, gives reasons why change attempts often fail and ideas on how change ideas can become reality. The second chapter in this section, A Model for Achieving Teacher Development, discusses teacher development as a method of change in education. Again the editor provides questions for thought as the reader proceeds through the last two chapters of a very thought-provoking book. Chapter 13: Planning, Doing, and Coping with Change by M. Fullan Fullan tackles four major areas of the problems that face planning educational change in this chapter. (1) Why Planning Fails: In this section, Fullan helps the reader understand why most attempts at making change fail. One of these reasons is that most change attempts are “hyperrational.” By this he means that change agents frequently have in mind what needs to be changed but have no idea on how to work through the change process. Because of this change agents are often so entrenched in their ideas that they fail to listen to others, fail to be flexible in how the change will occur, and meet resistance. In order to make change, a change agent must understand those who will be necessary for implanting the change and involve them, be flexible and listen to their ideas also. Without an understanding of the culture and context of those who will be implanting and affected by the change the change ideas are destined for failure. Fullan also warns against “false certainty” which he describes as when you think you have a great idea but it is incomplete. The change idea must be well thought out and stand on its own. Fullan quotes a study done by Hill, Campbell, and Harvey (2000) where seven competing reform proposals where analyzed. The authors found that each proposal had elements of positive change in education; however none could deliver the changes proposed without other changes being made. A change idea must make the changes necessary without relying on other changes in order to succeed. This then makes change a complex problem and Fullan discusses Complexity and Chaos theories. He then brings in Senge’s idea on Learning Environments and how these can bring about more positive change by involving everyone in the change process. (2) Success is Possible & (3) Planning and Coping: In these sections of the chapter Fullan gives hope to change agents citing cases where change did occur. Four logical types of change situations are discussed and a diagram of these is given. Criteria for change are discussed which leads into the next section (4) Planning and implementing change where ten do and don’t assumptions are given. Fullan concludes with giving the reader some assurance in that there are “many dilemmas and no clear answers to the question of where to start. The reader who by now has concluded that the theory of educational change is a theory of unanswerable questions will not be too far of the mark…. No one knows for sure what is best. We are engaged in a theory of probing and understanding the meaning of multiple dilemmas in attempting to decide what to do” (pp. 254-255). This chapter provides assurance, criteria and guidelines, as well as, more references for change agents to read and learn from before embarking on educational reform. Chapter14: A Model for achieving teacher development by B. Bell and John Gilbert In this chapter, Bell and Gilbert describe three main types of development, social, personal, and professional. So often when one thinks of teacher development only professional development comes to mind – development that will help the teacher in their professional life. This chapter reveals why the social and personal are also important to the professional development. This chapter describes a development project where teachers were asked to participate, but after the initial involvement of a facilitator the teachers drove the project. In the beginning the teachers were given an activity to try in their classrooms, and then they met back for discussions. During discussions the teachers ran the show. Through the discussions they were able to learn about themselves, other teachers, form social bonds with other teachers, and the environment was one where they did not feel threatened but invited to share. Various concerns and fears were brought out, such as loosing classroom control, but as teachers discussed how through active learning students may be louder and moving around more they found that students were learning more and the teachers still had control over the learning environment. Through this project teachers learned that by using Constructivism students not only learned but retained more knowledge. Teachers grew socially as their friendships developed with other teachers, they grew personally as they tried new activities and felt more empowered and professionally they realized they could have more positive experiences in their teaching. After discussing the project and outcomes of it, the authors state that “teacher development can be viewed as teachers learning, rather than as others getting teachers to change” (p. 274). As teachers were more involved in this project, they were learning versus a facilitator attempting to get them to learn something or change the ways they teach. This chapter follows much of the research on professional development, whereas in reality, unfortunately, much of the school districts still enforce the administration down choosing of professional development opportunities. Perhaps this chapter could be useful for teachers to use to persuade their districts to attempt different methods of professional development, and for those involved in professional development to approach it in different manners. References Gray, J. (1996) “The use of assessment to compare institutions” in Goldstein, H. and Lewis, T. (Eds) Assessment. Problems, Developments and Statistical Issues, Chichester and New York: John Wiley, pp. 121-33. Goodrum, D., Hackling, M. and Rennie, L (2001) .The Status and Quality of Teaching and Learning of Science in Australian Schools. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Hill, P., Campbell, C., & Harvey, J. (2000). It takes a city. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute. Hodson, D. with Bencze, L., Nyhof-Young, J., Pedretti, E. and Elshof, L. (2002). Changing science Education Through Action Research: Some Experiences from the Field. Toronto: Imperial Oil Centre for Social Studies in Science, mathematics and Technology Education, OISE/UR, in association with University of Toronto Press, pp. 361. Sinatra, G.M., and Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.) (2003) Intentional conceptual change. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Toulmin, S. (1958) The uses of Argument Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. About the Reviewer Natalie Zayas-Robinson is a lecturer at California State University, Monterey Bay and is also a graduate student at Fielding Graduate University in Santa Barbara, California.