Robinson, Sharon P. and Brown, M. Christopher II (Eds). (2007). The Children Hurricane Katrina Left Behind: Schooling Context, Professional Preparation, and Community Politics. Reviewed by Victoria Rankin Marks, American Institutes for Research

Robinson, Sharon P. and Brown, M. Christopher II (Eds). (2007). The Children Hurricane Katrina Left Behind: Schooling Context, Professional Preparation, and Community Politics. NY, NY: Peter Lang. Pp226     ISBN 978-0-8204-8822-6 Reviewed by Victoria Rankin Marks American Institutes for Research November 7, 2007 In the aftermath of hurricane Katrina, much has been said and written about the ongoing devastation faced by the families whose lives were inexorably changed by the disaster. It is no secret that, even prior to Katrina, New Orleans did not provide quality and equitable public education to its children. The contribution of this book lies in the examination of the historical and social contexts that shaped education in urban areas, and how those contexts continue to affect education in urban public schools today, both in New Orleans and nationally. Part One: Education and School Contexts The Children Hurricane Katrina Left Behind is divided into three sections. Part One contains essays that explore the historical and social elements that shaped the educational experiences of the children of New Orleans. Freeman begins chapter one with a comparison of the migration caused by Katrina to the historic ‘Great Migration’. She reminds us that the same housing, economic, and educational issues that confronted African American families during the migration of the late 1800s/early 1900s to 1970 still confront Black families in the 21st century. The Great Migration was, like the migration in the aftermath of Katrina, involuntary: African Americans families did not want to leave the south, but felt they must in search of better economic, housing, and educational opportunities. Instead, as European Americans fled urban areas for the suburbs, African Americans inherited segregated housing, segregated education, and discriminatory hiring practices. Similarly, during the migration forced by Katrina, African Americans did not want to leave New Orleans, but had no choice. Indeed, the impediment faced by families who wish to return to New Orleans is not their desire or willingness, but the lack of infrastructure to support education, housing, transportation, economics, and health (Hill & Hannaway, 2006). Freeman also finds parallels between the language used to describe the educational dilemma confronted by African American children since Katrina and that used in the Great Migration. The chapter makes it evident that one cannot expect different outcomes if the inputs are the same. Ladson-Billings continues the comparative analyses in her essay, which also examines the inequities that were evident in New Orleans prior to Katrina. The inequities Ladson-Billings addresses are, in particular, the economic investments made in school districts; she contrasts the richness of suburban investment in education with the meagerness of urban school districts. She cites, among others, the work of Jonathan Kozol (2005), as a reminder that the deplorable condition of education in New Orleans prior to Katrina was not as much as anomaly as we would like to believe. If the economic and social chasm that exists in New Orleans occurs in other urban areas, will it take the devastation of a hurricane and the media to focus our attention on such problems? Perhaps that will shift our focus, but according to Ladson-Billings, our attention is superficial. We practice what she terms aggressive neglect—the poor are demonized, blamed, and isolated: out of sight and out of mind. A disaster strikes, and we pay attention but all too quickly our national consciousness shifts to other things, and the poor are left to fend for themselves. Ladson-Billings advocates aggressive attention—a concentrated and focused effort to reverse the systematic neglect we show our poor. The themes of persistent and historical inequities continue in chapter three, where Irvine provides statistics about the state of children in New Orleans and in America. Race and racism still influence the number of babies born into poverty, infant mortality, rates of teenage motherhood, babies born without health insurance, babies born to mothers who did not finish high school, and babies born to unwed mothers. Irvine demonstrates the relationship among race, poverty, and school inequality through a discussion of segregation and the test score gap. Segregation has been on the rise (and undoubtedly will increase as posited in an AERA summary of the Supreme Court case involving the consideration of race in school assignment in Seattle, Washington and Jefferson County, Kentucky [2006]). Irvine raises the question of why researchers focus on the individuals and classrooms in lieu of systemic issues related to the achievement gap between students of different racial, ethnic, and economic backgrounds. One possible answer may be that it is easier to talk about implementing changes to individuals and classrooms than it is to obtain the political, economic, and social will necessary to change systems of education. Given that presumption, ongoing investments in individual and classroom reform over the last three decades have failed to substantially affect the persistent gap in achievement (for further discussion, see Jencks & Phillips, 1998). It is precisely a transformation of urban education—finding the political, economic, and social will—that Irvine and the other authors of this text advocate. Chapters four through seven conclude Part One with more discussion regarding academic achievement among African American students, both nation-wide and in New Orleans. Leonard’s focus is predominantly on achievement in mathematics. Zamani-Gallaher, and Polite examine the implications of Katrina on K-16 education in New Orleans, and discuss some of the psychodynamic theoretical perspectives on the impact of the hurricane. Brown, Dancy, and Davis continue in chapter six by providing additional reflection on the context and history of education in America, drawing from the theoretical paradigms of status (Weber, 1978), cultural capital and reproduction (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977). In chapter seven, Gadsden and Fuhrman’s discussion of educational equity in post-Katrina New Orleans segues into Part Two of the book. Their essay serves as a summary of the collective issues that historically and currently plague New Orleans (racism, poverty, inadequate educational resources). The authors suggest that the federal, as well as national and local, government forces must intervene with needed support to ensure that New Orleans receives the help it needs (p. 76). The help needed now, the authors warn, differs substantially from what was needed prior to Katrina; those returning have experienced the resources available elsewhere, and bring with them trauma and stress imposed by their dislocation from the familiar. Similarly, those who never left New Orleans have also experienced extraordinary levels of trauma and stress as the lives they knew were irretrievably changed. Gadsden & Fuhrman note that any consideration for the future of education in New Orleans must address the challenges currently faced by children and their families. One way to address educational challenges is through the professional preparation of educators, which is the focus of Part Two. Part Two: Preparing Professionals for the Possible Lit & Snyder’s essay, which begins Part Two of the book, deals with the opportunity for changes to the structure and processes of urban education provided by the catastrophe of hurricane Katrina. They recommend an approach to public education that could improve achievement outcomes for students of color and students from low-income families—Quality Schools Collaborative—which emphasizes teacher quality, stakeholder participation, and infrastructure development. In chapter nine, Fleener, Willis, Brun, & Herbert present a reflection on the work of academics, with reference to unwritten rules that make it more acceptable to write about problems regarding education in urban America than to do something about it. This is particularly the case for universities and colleges situated on campuses adjacent to urban areas where the needs of children are visible if one is but willing to look. Departments of education housed in universities and colleges can shape a framework responsive to the educational crisis. Adequate resolution of the issues children face might require bending, and even breaking, rules of research, analysis, and community engagement. In the essay presented in chapter 10, Distad continues the call for collaborative effort among leaders in education. Outlining eight characteristics of teacher-leaders, Distad reminds us that how we train teachers is of vital importance because they are on the frontline in the crusade against the ravaging effects of poverty and substandard education. Mattai and Williams begin chapter 11 with a discussion of the misuse of socioeconomic class as a surrogate for race in the discourse surrounding education. Framing discussions around the issue of education in this manner makes it easier to avoid addressing the root cause of the problems faced by students of color as they navigate the processes of schooling. The authors challenge the notion of socioeconomic class as preeminent over race in the problem of academic achievement. However, they criticize the emphasis on multiculturalism as insufficient to address the issues. The attempt to include all cultures implies a level of equality among racial and ethnic groups, which the authors find contradictory. The context of this discussion raises the importance of authentic cultural inclusion as we move forward in shaping children’s educational experiences. In response, Mattai and Williams emphasize the importance of making cultural responsiveness a central component of teacher preparation. The essay by Smith and Williams-Boyd provides evidence of the effect exposure to children’s social and cultural contexts can have on teachers in training. The authors recount stories from trips to New Orleans by professors and graduate students of the education department at Eastern Michigan University. The trips, undertaken immediately after Katrina and again after Rita, helped students put faces, names, and lives on the tragic events. They learned how much the people devastated by the hurricanes were just like them. They learned how quickly the fabric of our lives, those things that constitute our daily being, can be stripped away. The experience induced a change in how the visiting graduate students thought about their role as educators, which is an important first step toward culturally responsive pedagogy. Robinson and Engel conclude Part Two with an essay that underscores yet again the importance of excellent preparation, i.e., one that is responsive to the needs of students. They also emphasize the correlation between excellent teacher training and student achievement, citing several studies that support the positive association between teacher quality and students’ academic outcomes. Delineating the characteristics of exceptional world-class teachers, Robinson and Engel state that such characteristics are usually not found in urban public schools. Hope lies in the transformation of teacher education, which is underway in many colleges of education. The effects of Katrina and Rita can help escalate the transformation of teacher education by providing an opportunity for direct and in immediate response to dire circumstances. This is not to suggest that circumstances in pre-Katrina New Orleans were not dire, or that they are any less compelling in urban districts throughout the United States. However, the issues brought to light in post-Katrina New Orleans should make it impossible to deny the necessity for urgent action. New Orleans represents a tragic, but unique opportunity to rebuild a system of education from the ground up, and to apply the lessons learned nation-wide. Part Three: The Social Dynamics of Educational Reform Levine’s essay begins Part Three of the book with comments that appear antithetical to the promise of positive outcomes suggested by Robinson and Engel. Levine discusses interviews with community college students, in which the prevailing sentiment was not hope, but disappointment and despair. The students who participated in the focus group were critical of the local, state, and federal governments, and the representatives who proved so inept in their response to people in distress. They viewed the lessons of Katrina and Rita through cynical lenses: looking out for number one is what matters most. However, Levine uses the results of focus groups with students to reiterate the theme of the previous essays: we must extract from the post-Katrina experience a consciousness about our connection to those who are less fortunate. Other essayists challenge faculty in schools of education and student in teacher training to become more responsive. Levine challenges children, along with the rest of us, to be more responsive. His essay advocates teaching children vital lessons learned from the devastation left in the wake of Katrina. From the tragedy, children can learn how each one of us can connect to those around us. In chapter 15, Smith’s essay returns us to the issue of teacher quality. Smith recounts her educational experiences in segregated, and later, integrated schools in the south. She reemphasizes the importance of teachers who genuinely care about the children they educate. Caring is a characteristic, Smith suggests, too often absent in the relationship between African American children and their teachers; instead, students of color encounter an ethic of uncaring. Not intending to paint a dismal picture, Smith finds solace in the hope that the transformation of public education for urban children can result in an ethic of caring. Utilizing culturally relevant pedagogy leads to education systems that embrace caring. Futrell expands the discussion of culturally responsive pedagogy to include the children of recent immigrants to America. Stressing the correlation between education and globalization, the author asserts the necessity of preparing educators who can help the United States compete in a global economy that is knowledge-based, and far removed from the industrial model that was the historical basis of public education. Interdisciplinary instruction, in addition to restructuring the use of class time, can help achieve the implementation of a model of education more responsive to current global realities. Futrell argues that the transformation of our system of education is necessary because we cannot afford to educate future generations by ways and means of the past. In the final essay, Wise and Leibbrand remind us that improvements in teacher quality lead to improvements in academic outcomes. Their chapter recounts the progress of the last two decades in the licensing, alignment of accreditation with education standards, and advances in assessment for new teachers in effort to enhance professional development. Despite progress in these areas, the U.S. Department of Education pronounced teacher education a failure. This allowed not only for the entry of under-prepared and for unqualified persons into the ranks of pubic educators, but also helped to create competing and sometimes conflicting agencies involved in the regulation of teacher credentials. The impact on pubic education is chaotic; many states follow dual routes to securing teachers, which has contributed to deprofessionalization of teaching (p. 196). Wise and Leibbrand call upon states and systems of education to make a choice regarding what constitutes qualified and professional teachers, and adhere to professional standards. Indeed, it is the only way to ensure that all children have access to qualified teachers. The remainder of the chapter discusses the advantages of the infrastructures embedded in the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and Professional Development Schools (PDS) to meet this goal. Strengths and Criticisms The essays presented in this book contribute to an understanding of the historical and social contexts that shaped public education in America. From the discussion in the first chapter of the parallels between the migration imposed by hurricane Katrina and earlier migrations of African Americans, the authors challenge readers to think about the state of public education not just as it applies to New Orleans, but also as it applies to any urban school in the Unites States. We are challenged to consider not just P-12 education, but also the inequities in higher education that continue to plague HBCUs in New Orleans and elsewhere. Beyond framing the context for what we observe in New Orleans, the book includes specific suggestions for structural and procedural changes to both educational infrastructure and teacher training. The message of transformation, and not merely reformation, is the most salient and consistent note throughout the text. As informative as I found this book, I do have a few criticisms. First, I would have liked more discussion about how the opportunities from hurricane Katrina could be operationalized. It would mean a longer volume, but I think expanded analysis would have contributed to a fuller discussion of educational transformation. For example, Lit and Snyder suggest that conflicts in education can be solved constructively (p. 92). Some adherents of the conflict perspective posit that the nature of discord in education is rooted in a power struggle, and those in power are not prone to constructive resolution (for example, see Bowles & Gintis, 1977; Collins, 1971). More discussion relating improvements in urban education to existing political, economic, and social constraints would provide a needed anchor in what is truly doable, and not just desirable. In another example, Futrell cites two studies recently undertaken by the federal government as evidence of the national focus on education. The context of her argument is clear—the federal government has turned attention towards education, as evidenced by the legislation that enabled the No Child Left Behind Act. However, what the disaster in New Orleans illuminated, as other essayists in this book clearly indicate, is that the attention is woefully inadequate. The impact of hurricanes Katrina and Rita uncovered the continuing struggle of too many children of color to obtain a decent education; a struggle that the country has ignored for far too long. Futrell acknowledges that fragmentation besieges the debates concerning education, and that the discussions have not resulted in comprehensive transformation. I concur, and submit that the efforts of transformation demanded in this book will take much more than anything we have seen to date. The placement of political, social, and economic frameworks to support the requisite transformation remains unclear. Secondly, with the emphasis on school transformation, professional development, and community context, I anticipated additional recommendations for culturally responsive pedagogy and cultural competence training. Smith’s essay addressed some of the issues attendant to cultural responsiveness. Additionally, there was brief discussion of these ideas in other essays (e.g., Fleener, et al., pp. 110-112; Distad, pp. 121-122). However, given the pivotal role culturally responsive pedagogy plays in the transformation of urban education, there was not enough inclusion of how culturally sensitive educators could help achieve some of the goals outlined. For example, Kea, Campbell-Whatley, and Richards (2004) highlight the critical importance of understanding the social and cultural context of students, and applying this knowledge to what is taught and pedagogical approach. Richards, Brown, and Ford (2004) also stress the importance of culturally responsive pedagogy: effective teaching and learning occur when the strengths that students bring to school are identified, nurtured, and utilized to promote their achievement. My foregoing criticisms are perhaps only desired extensions of the book. After all, the authors did not omit the issues I raise; I just think they warrant fuller discussion. However, I believe one area of omission to be that of parental and/or family involvement. One could argue that essays concerning cultural responsiveness implicitly address this topic, but a more explicit discussion is necessary. Discussions about educating children need to include references to ways in which their families will be included in the process. The importance of connections between families and schools is well documented (e.g., Ryan et al. (1995); Epstein (1989, 1983). Additional research highlights the importance of parental involvement with respect to the academic achievement of African American students in particular (e.g., Brook-Gunn & Markman, 2005; Bean et al., 2003). Discussion pertaining to how to strengthen communication and connectivity between parents, families, and schools must be included in the discourse about transforming urban education, as well as how to facilitate parental and family involvement in children’s formal education. Despite my criticisms, I found this book to be highly readable, passionate, and engaging. I recommend it to anyone concerned about transforming education. The authors enhance understanding of the historical and social contexts preceding the current state of urban education, and provide provocative suggestions for ways in which to move forward. I close by quoting Smith and Williams-Boyd: Educating is an act that touches the core of humanity’s center. 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Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. About the Reviewer Victoria Rankin Marks holds a PhD in sociology from the University of Virginia, and is an AERA/AIR postdoctoral fellow at the American Institutes for Research in Washington, D.C. Dr. Marks’s areas of research are early childhood education, the achievement gap, family-school connections, and the correlation between language development and mathematic achievement